https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/about daily 0.75 2020-08-15 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1597351369856-89K6SBTXQ6ZDGXB9LFIX/vonPamer_AP09_11U.jpg About Photo of Nickelsberg’s gear by John Pamer for American Photo Sept-Oct 2003 https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/contact daily 0.75 2020-08-15 https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/gudri-mosque daily 0.75 2020-08-07 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533996777995-MBTYMXPZHW0ZTKGNHTU8/_84A2011.jpg Gudri Mosque Scaffolding supports the ongoing restoration work at the early twentieth-century Gudri Mosque in Kabul, built upon an earlier structure. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533996776341-MSZOJ4IH26E3KX47E0PW/_84A1974.jpg Gudri Mosque Two laborers pose for a picture during restoration and preservation work of Gudri Mosque in Kabul, Afghanistan. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533996787223-CAZUIUMAA11MS4RZTM4R/3_D6C2873.jpg Gudri Mosque What started out as an architectural project to restore Gudri Mosque soon began involving the students in other disciplines – archaeology, preservation, and urban planning – as they began to probe the underpinnings of the damaged structure and found the remains of an earlier seventeenth-century building, which is rare in Kabul. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533996786250-OCLKINAVWNH3Q4W26QD9/15_D6C2791.jpg Gudri Mosque Once considered men-only professions in Afghanistan, architecture and engineering are attracting more women students at Kabul University and Kabul Polytechnic. Here, female students sketch the old mosque’s entrance and minarets. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533996794080-GM9DO7Q8WI5E3V420DII/18_D6C2668.jpg Gudri Mosque Kabul is faced with overpopulation and stress on the city’s infrastructure. Effective urban planning and preservation of Kabul’s historic districts pose challenges for engineers and architects. Students at Kabul University listen to architect Yasin Hejrat discuss the complexities of preserving the city’s historical sites and Kabul’s breakneck growth. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533996794604-TQ8NXXOZFSKJRSZD2YGA/20_D6C3007.jpg Gudri Mosque A Kabul University professor lectures to students about the restoration of Gudri Mosque. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533996802778-O3AZPXY8O21ZQ06TXAHT/22_D6C3452.jpg Gudri Mosque Students sift through the foundation underpinnings of the damaged mosque searching for artifacts and found the remains of an earlier seventeenth-century building, which is rare in Kabul. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533996803995-CGGN7RSEFL35K8YMKH5W/24_D6C3583.jpg Gudri Mosque Professors at Kabul University are using the Gudri Mosque site to train aspiring students in architecture, historic preservation and urban regeneration. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533996808268-KE87H91EW8MNYTGUQH04/31_L1008389.jpg Gudri Mosque Project Director Abdul Wasay Najimi, left, speaks with Kabul University architecture students on the urgent need for preserving Kabul’s heritage amid the city’s chaotic growth. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/lapd daily 0.75 2020-08-09 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998899950-8T782AHBO80B11MKA70B/1E2A6850.jpg Sex Trafficking in Los Angeles May 16, 2017: Officers of the Los Angeles Police Department's Vice Squad confront three women in the southeast area of Los Angeles, California, issuing them warnings for loitering for the purposes of prostitution - a municipal code violation. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998904676-Z67VYKTWT1D3XEE9GDS7/1E2A7288.jpg Sex Trafficking in Los Angeles May 17, 2017: Officers of the Los Angeles Police Department's Vice Squad arrest a 17-year old woman in the south east area of Los Angeles, California for soliciting an undercover police officer for the purpose of prostitution. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998904721-GB4P27MXLPFBCBHYA94W/1E2A7305.jpg Sex Trafficking in Los Angeles May 17, 2017: Officers of the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad arrest a 17-year old woman in the southeast area of Los Angeles, California for soliciting an undercover police officer for the purpose of prostitution. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998909958-0BQPFPTBFSM7GF6C95AQ/1E2A7435.jpg Sex Trafficking in Los Angeles May 17, 2017: Officers of the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad transport a 17-year old woman to a state agency for minors following her arrest in the southeast area of Los Angeles, California. The under-age woman was arrested for soliciting an undercover police officer for the purpose of prostitution. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998914418-FKTDPV2IWSOF7WSWUZJE/1E2A7457.jpg Sex Trafficking in Los Angeles May 17, 2017: An officer of the Los Angeles Police Department fingerprints a 17-year old woman following her arrest in the southeast area of Los Angeles, California for soliciting an undercover police officer for the purpose of prostitution. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998917052-2LM01T9G7AOK4JKDHZXU/1E2A7578.jpg Sex Trafficking in Los Angeles May 18, 2017: Officers of the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad arrest a woman in the southeast area of Los Angeles, California for soliciting an undercover police officer for the purpose of prostitution. On this morning, thirteen women were arrested in 30 minutes, starting at 5:35am, along Figueroa Street - a renowned thoroughfare for prostitution. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998921490-54RT8DX6W3J3DR1UBFIG/1E2A7661.jpg Sex Trafficking in Los Angeles May 18, 2017: Officers of the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad arrest a woman in the southeast area of Los Angeles, California for soliciting an undercover police officer for the purpose of prostitution. On this morning, thirteen women were arrested in 30 minutes, starting at 5:35am, along Figueroa Street - a renowned thoroughfare for prostitution. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998924073-KM7RIFDTJK1HXT8KGMAY/1E2A7765.jpg Sex Trafficking in Los Angeles May 18, 2017: Sgt Scott Carty, center, an officer with the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad, arrests three women in the southeast area of Los Angeles, California for soliciting undercover police officers for the purpose of prostitution. On this morning, thirteen women were arrested in 30 minutes, starting at 5:35am, along Figueroa Street - a renowned thoroughfare for prostitution. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534384052582-G12D5ORMZMOBG6EP4UVX/1E2A7903.jpg Sex Trafficking in Los Angeles May 18, 2017: Officers of the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad arrest three women in the southeast area of Los Angeles, California for soliciting undercover police officers for the purpose of prostitution, a misdemeanor charge. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534384013821-B0UB5GY70QFZ5581Z9J0/1E2A7947.jpg Sex Trafficking in Los Angeles May 18, 2017: Sgt Scott Carty, left, an officer with the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad, escorts 13 women arrested earlier in the day to a holding cell at the South East division's police headquarters in Los Angeles, California. The women were arrested for soliciting undercover police officers for the purpose of prostitution, a misdemeanor charge. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998934936-CZBR8U7XM68UCTDPYFLC/1E2A8371.jpg Sex Trafficking in Los Angeles May 18, 2017: Officers of the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad prepare thirteen women for transportation after being arrested for prostitution in the southeast area of Los Angeles, California. The women were arrested for soliciting undercover police officers for the purpose of prostitution. All thirteen women were arrested in a span of 30 minutes starting at 5:35am along Figueroa Street, a renowned thoroughfare for prostitution https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998943139-0KVREHQA6OLHU6EBG50W/1E2A8384.jpg Sex Trafficking in Los Angeles May 18, 2017: Officers of the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad direct women arrested for prostitution in the southeast area of Los Angeles, California into a van. The women were arrested for soliciting undercover police officers for the purpose of prostitution. All thirteen women were arrested in 30 minutes starting at 5:35am along Figueroa Street, a renowned thoroughfare for prostitution. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998951450-QA1M4E24U5579PKMJP9L/1E2A9089-editv2.jpg Sex Trafficking in Los Angeles May 22, 2017: A woman arrested for prostitution, center top, speaks to an officer from the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad in the southern area of Los Angeles, California. The woman was arrested for soliciting an undercover police officer for the purpose of prostitution, a misdemeanor charge. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998957909-U6UZKWICLCR48WUBI3Q2/1E2A9176.jpg Sex Trafficking in Los Angeles May 22, 2017: An officer of the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad, left, speaks to an arrested woman, right, in a police holding cell in the southern area of Los Angeles, California. The women seen inside the holding cell were arrested for soliciting undercover police officers for the purpose of prostitution, a misdemeanor charge. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998967439-DSY1IK938UOPC8YKJZHH/L1003745.jpg Sex Trafficking in Los Angeles May 16, 2017: Officers of the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad arrest a woman in the southeast area of Los Angeles, California for soliciting an undercover police officer for the purpose of prostitution, a misdemeanor charge. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998981830-P90QKLMM1AM9JUCHBZFR/L1003849.jpg Sex Trafficking in Los Angeles May 16, 2017: An officer of the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad, right, monitors a 17-year old woman before she's transported to a state agency for minors following her arrest in the south east area of Los Angeles, California. The under-age woman was arrested for soliciting an undercover police officer for the purpose of prostitution, a misdemeanor charge. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998991167-5ES7FJZHUWUVQTPHE1GW/L1004049-editv2+copy.jpg Sex Trafficking in Los Angeles May 22, 2017: A woman arrested for prostitution speaks to officers from the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad in the southern area of Los Angeles, California. She was arrested for soliciting an undercover police officer for the purpose of prostitution. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/survivors daily 0.75 2020-08-09 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533999085861-UZG9LU6TSY0M9M6IJ6H0/5_Candise+Walker.jpg Survivors of Sex Trafficking Candise Walker sits in the Lynn Commons Park in Lynn, Massachusetts in June 2016. Candise was sexually abused by her female babysitter when she was 5-years and raped by her mother’s drug dealer when she was 12-years as payment for her mother’s dose of crack cocaine. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533999070870-F9PGZHBLF65EVI0U5KAP/1_Catherine+Mossman.jpg Survivors of Sex Trafficking Catherine Ann Wilson stands outside her home on Sebago Lake, Maine on August 26, 2017 . Catherine is a sex trafficking survivor, now an anti-trafficking advocate and the founder-director of stoptraffickingUS.org. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533999070911-OYM0HWEBU74WX7K1BC2Y/2_Cathie+Geren.jpg Survivors of Sex Trafficking Catherine Geren became involved with a trafficker through her heroin addict boyfriend when she was 17 years. Now, 29, she has been out of “the life” for nearly three years, is enrolled in college and has a 7-month old baby. August 26, 2017. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533999076526-IGI2FOWVSK48AIJZXE8U/3_Tricia+Grant.jpg Survivors of Sex Trafficking Tricia Grant-Gregoire was trafficked when she was 15 years and had a one-year old child while living in Lewiston, Maine. Her two traffickers threatened to have her child taken away by social services if she revealed what they were doing with her. She is now an anti-trafficking advocate in Lewiston, Maine. August 26, 2017. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533999077740-SK3O8HD75QHEFD7G7XA7/4_Jasmine+Marino.jpg Survivors of Sex Trafficking Jasmine Marino stands outside her home in Saugus, Massachusetts December 2016. She’s 5-months pregnant and delivered a baby girl in February 2017. The father is her former husband; they have since remarried. Jasmine published the diary she secretly kept while being trafficked over a 6-year period, The Diary of Jasmine Grace. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533999094496-KUL05IYB2NK11HITJQ70/7_Megan+McCarthy.jpg Survivors of Sex Trafficking Megan McCarthy stands outside the University of Vermont Medical Center November 24, 2016 in Burlington, Vermont where she had a sonogram to determine the health of her baby girl delivered March 2017. Megan was trafficked from Vermont to Connecticut by a man who once supplied heroin to her and eventually became her pimp. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533999085720-E541ZXRA7JUV0XBB5R01/6_Catherine+Mossman.jpg Survivors of Sex Trafficking Catherine Ann Wilson stands in front of a friend’s apartment in Biddeford, Maine in July 2016 where she ran away to 36-years ago from her home in Florida. Once inside, she was raped and trafficked by her friend’s pimp whom she hadn’t been told about and who threatened her life if she tried to escape. She did so one-year later. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/a-distant-war daily 0.75 2019-11-13 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385254269-SQIXLYI0EVPN0T9J2QFS/CH1_009_03_59.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War May 1988: An Afghan soldier hands a flag in solidarity to a departing Soviet soldier in Kabul on the first day of the army’s withdrawal from Afghanistan. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385265209-WQGQVQQ2FDQ8QBB99431/CH1_015_afghanistan_02_117.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War March 1989: Afghan mujahideen move toward the front line during the battle for Jalalabad, in eastern Afghanistan. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385182333-ZCTXE09CKID91I27OKWI/3_CH1_016_afghanistan_02_113-Edit_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War March 1989: Afghan refugees take cover from a bombing attack by the Afghan Air Force during the battle for Jalalabad. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385182250-ILBTSFM0B0U9C18HN2WX/4-1_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War April 1989: Military academy cadets march in Kabul to celebrate the Saur Revolution, the Afghan Communist Party’s seizure of power 11 years earlier. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385183466-9VMJFFMJNCQW6559IVIS/9_CH1_018_afghan_new_03-Edit_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War May 1990: Afghan mujahideen move about the Zhawar training complex controlled by Jalaluddin Haqqani in Khost, Afghanistan. The Zhawar camps along the Afghan-Pakistan border became the main base for Osama bin Laden and his Arab followers. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385273882-MXSJ6HQ51ME04Q2NJFZZ/CH1_019_afghan_39-Edit.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War May 1990: Arab Al Qaeda members and Afghan mujahideen jog at a Zhawar training camp outside of Khost, Afghanistan. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385308595-A6UX765UIP7X0DA8U3L4/CH1_020_24_91119_003-Edit.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War May 1990: Mujahideen commander Jalaluddin Haqqani at a base camp in Khost, Afghanistan. An ethnic Pashtun, Haqqani was an early convert to global jihad. Haqqani befriended Osama bin Laden in the late 1980’s and attracted Arab fighters to his training camps along the Afghan-Pakistan border. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385249767-WCJRCVK114AQEZO9C9EJ/CH1_006_Sec1_khost01-edit.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War April 1991: Afghan mujahideen inspect a Kabul government plane after they seized the Khost garrison. Provincial control gave Afghan mujahideen, Arabs enlisted by Al Qaeda, and Pakistani advisors valuable territory to establish base camps for training and resupply in Afghanistan. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385261993-5NL5NRGOCQQVFXEUIDNV/CH1_012_05_77.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War September 1991: Afghans in the Bagh-e Babur, or Babur’s Garden, perform the attan, a traditional Afghan folk dance. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385183582-FN4T2VADZIHCFJYF450Z/13_CH1_014_afghanistan_02_150-edit_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War March 1992: A young boy sells government-owned newspapers on a Kabul street. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385284326-G5VD1JDO6LIRA0VNIJ8F/CH1_024_06_137.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War April 1992: Afghan Uzbek fighters under the control of Abdul Rashid Dostum fire on Hizb-i-Islami forces of Gulbuddin Hekmatyar in the southwest part of Kabul, during the mujahideen seizure of the city. The takeover of Kabul became a battle between mujahideen groups, divided along ethnic and geographic regions, attempting to seize control of government ministries. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385294287-NEAGHW6GTRU3KVB1EPWS/CH2_004_08_107.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War March 1993: A Kabul family flees its home during factional fighting between President Rabbani’s government forces and opposition Hizb-i-Islami and Hezb-I-Wahdat fighters in western Kabul. The fighting marked a continuation of an operation in which hundreds of unarmed Hazaras were killed. The dispute for control of western Kabul involved Sunni militias against the Shia Hezb-I-Wahdat. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385188244-JJ3Z3J2N63KAS5XGB9S4/21_15_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War March 1994: Boys working with government militiamen fill water buckets from a hand pump on Jade Maiwand, Kabul’s former business district and a front line between factional groups. Food, water and fuel were retrieved during short-lived periods of peace. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385330188-9WB43RRN1NREGBOT09FO/CH3_EXTRA_003_taliban02-Edit.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War October 1996: A Taliban mullah speaks to a crowd gathered in central Kabul after Taliban forces took control from the Rabbani government. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385305292-WH6QND1EK3JLQ5TL0GG9/CH3_002_afghanistan_02_154-Edit-Edit.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War September 1996: Taliban soldiers fire a rocket at retreating forces of the Northern Alliance army north of Kabul. The capital fell to the Taliban on September 27, 1996. The Kabul government’s defenses collapsed with little resistance to the Taliban advance. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385186168-7EXMPNJ9CL3JB0OKPFJD/19_CH2_007_additionals13-edit_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War October 1996: A widow of an Afghan mujahideen fighter seeks refuge with her children in an unheated apartment in Kabul. The women’s husband was killed while fighting the Taliban. Kabul has between 30,000 and 50,000 war widows with little means of support and their situation became more precarious once the Taliban took over in September 1996. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385188417-UPNCLC47XJNQ1SX5EF65/30_19_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War May 1997: A Taliban soldier walks away from where his comrade was shot down in Mazar-I-Sharif. A recent power sharing agreement with Uzbek and Hazara militias and the Taliban broke down after 36-hours. The Taliban were unaware that the Uzbeks and Hazaras had drawn them into a trap. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385190767-36K1Y6KT08BPNL1YM2GB/31_CH3_007_afghanistan_02_40-Edit_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War May 1997: A Taliban soldier fires a rocket-propelled grenade into a doorway where a local Uzbek militiaman had opened fire on a column of Taliban fighters. After two days of fighting, local militiamen had killed over 800 Taliban. Revenge from the Taliban came within a year. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385324951-67NY0CZ9KJ1VVELAHSN5/CH3_014_14_003_1.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War November 2001: An Afghan shepherd in Chowkar Karez, Kandahar province, shouts to his children to lead their flock of goats over to him. He stands by a wall bombed by U.S. and French aircraft. The death toll was nearly 25 civilians, although local residents claim Al Qaeda or Taliban were not present during the attacks. The U.S. Army called the town a military target occupied by one of the groups. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385321728-4QESKVW4KLL6XV0U6CSN/CH3_016_15_P03.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War December 2001: Pakistani Taliban captured outside of Kabul while fighting Northern Alliance troops. All four were from Pakistan’s Punjab province, trained at a local religious center, and recruited by Jaish-i-Mohammed, a militant Islamic group associated with Osama bin Laden. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385348980-O5X760KLU2L1FUPGM0MC/CH4_011_19_0901_3139.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War March 2009: Afghan National Police stand at a guard post in Qarabagh, Ghazni province. The Taliban controlled more than 40 of the 464 villages in Qarabagh district. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385190997-G12ADFWZG2KVHDLLCDSC/41_29_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War August 2006: Three wounded U.S. Army soldiers from the 10th Mountain Division await evacuation by helicopter from Kamdesh, Nuristan province. They were ambushed and suffered wounds to their eyes and foreheads. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385192646-Q2P46MX5KPA82X69V1MW/49_31_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War A U.S. soldier shakes the hand of an Afghan youth outside the town of Jalrez in Wardak province. The hilltop overlooking apple and almond orchards had fighting trenches, left of the soldier, built by Afghan mujahideen 25 years ago in their fight against Soviet forces. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385193873-FHESPZPVQ85QI22XFI9S/51_CH4_009_IMG_7161_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War August 2009: U.S. Marines investigate possible bomb making ingredients at a farmer’s home in Khan Neshin, Helmand province. The team concluded the fertilizer was for agricultural use. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385193830-L8GQFL9JLZ50MSVV4KDY/52_34_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War August 2009: U.S. Marines from the 2nd Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion hold a briefing after a patrol in Khan Neshin, Helmand province. Taliban fighters, forced to flee by the influx of 4,000 Marines into the province, had controlled southern Helmand for nearly four years. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385192690-16T2ZJUXZX5UGMKMJ3AI/50_CH4_EXTRA_015_IMG_7059_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War August 2009: An Afghan farmer stands outside his home as a U.S. Marine patrol walk past in Khan Neshin, Helmand province. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385195668-RCIGRNA3B7ZNF8VOJX7Y/53_CH4_020_bfc9_8970_949-Edit_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War September 2009: A valley in the Hindu Kush mountains in Kunar province, viewed from a U.S. Army helicopter. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385238978-PLYBBKBT11647IEVXTZA/20130515_kbl_30.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War May 2013: A policeman stops traffic as schoolgirls cross a main roadway in western Kabul. Female literacy rate in Kabul is 37%, the highest in the country. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385195627-GSG4M8AEVCRAY29PDFL3/63_ch4_21.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War May 2013: A U.S. Army soldier at Bagram Air Base sits on top of a Mine-Resistant All-Terrain Vehicle, MRAP, looking for any loose ammunition before the vehicle is shipped back to the United States as part of the withdrawal of U.S. forces from Afghanistan. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385334690-QG2G2ZHXK9WXGA6SXU57/CH4_EXTRA_044_84A9163.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War May 2013: A contingent of American troops concludes their tour in Afghanistan and prepare to fly home from Bagram Air Base. Others arrive, wearing their helmets. With the Western military presence winding down in the months before the December 2014 withdrawal deadline, the United States continues to provide the largest contributions of men, women, and assistance. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385242479-VYB8RZRLMRYZVZE4HF6K/20130516_kbl_01.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War May 2013: Car and truck traffic back up near the Pul-e-Sokhta bridge in western Kabul. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/baburs-garden daily 0.75 2019-11-13 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997636928-ZPCVYYF4UNA1IRQXMRY5/1_L1008822.jpg Babur's Garden A panoramic view of Bagh-e Babur, a 217-acre park in Kabul, designed by the first Mughal emperor, Babur, in the 16th-century. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997635958-OG1X6J9PRC1N238XCBH0/3_84A3089.jpg Babur's Garden Emperor Babur was so enamored with his gardens in Kabul that before he died in India, he demanded that his body be taken from Agra for burial in Kabul. Much as Kabulis have done for centuries, families and youth flock to the restored Bagh-e Babur gardens for respite inside the garden walls. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997644676-G1M5T4UFQ5IJJ82IGN8I/5_84A3181.jpg Babur's Garden Youth are among the tens of thousands of visitors who find a reprieve from the noise of Kabul in Bagh-e Babur considered to be among the finest surviving examples of Mughal garden design. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997645880-AMWQEI54OEY2ZW9OMP5Q/7_84A3349.jpg Babur's Garden A large pavilion was built on the upper levels of Bagh-e Babur in the 20th-century by King Nadir Shah and it now serves as an exhibition hall. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997654981-BCGCXZ3DEZMXFX4ZFER5/9_84A3488.jpg Babur's Garden A caravanserai complex was added to Bagh-e Babur in 2004-2005. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997653709-MAZXEODT39PCE0L285E7/11_D6C6894.jpg Babur's Garden An employee sweeps the window ledge inside a gallery and exhibition hall in Bagh-e Babur’s main pavilion. The gallery pictures were taken by Josephine Powell in the 1960’s of Afghanistan’s historic monuments. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997659184-S3UQTKC88LJIOBCY47B0/12_D6C7047.jpg Babur's Garden The front view in Bagh-e Babur of a small white marble mosque built in 1647 by Mughal ruler Shah Jahan. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997665887-SXYYL8MZX010K7724APD/13_L1009513.jpg Babur's Garden The side view in Bagh-e Babur of a small white marble mosque built in 1647 by Mughal ruler Shah Jahan. A group of houses has grown above Babur’s Garden where an old fort called Noon Day Cannon Hill, upper left, still maintains a police security detachment. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997667110-183GAPZK37WFWO3JWWUY/26_L1008751.jpg Babur's Garden An employee walks to an office inside Bagh-e Babur’s large pavilion and exhibition hall. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/afghan-national-institute-of-music daily 0.75 2019-11-13 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997783784-2SOP04YSWRXC6ENJBTQO/3_D6C6353.jpg Afghan National Institute of Music Dr. Ahmad Sarmast (left), Director of the Afghan National Institute of Music, warns students to take security precautions in the wake of a suicide attack in the downtown area of Kabul. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997786035-A6VZ5BZ8FBY4EUEEO4F1/9_D6C5809.jpg Afghan National Institute of Music Afghan classical music often relies on the sitar, a stringed instrument brought to the royal court in Kabul by Indian musicians in the nineteenth century. Here, an Indian husband and wife team are teaching sitar to students. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997789920-SDYMJG5CTLFKML28DO1U/16_D6C4006.jpg Afghan National Institute of Music A British oboe instructor marks a score sheet for an Afghan student during class. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997792901-OUMJYGD9KJMTBV2NQWLJ/19_D6C6196.jpg Afghan National Institute of Music A trumpeter practices his notes in one of the school’s studios. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997795141-R92LF50LTN60XBZBAYEI/20_D6C7700.jpg Afghan National Institute of Music A young woman plays the lute-like rabab, a uniquely Afghan musical instrument, during an instruction class at the Afghan National Institute of Music in Kabul. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997799879-EZXMG7Z5F86NMI8Z1I59/24_D6C7931.jpg Afghan National Institute of Music Afghan girls practice their recorders with an instructor. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997802847-T381NHRPZTEHXEE0T4T4/25_D6C5867.jpg Afghan National Institute of Music A female student practices her bowing technique on a cello under the watchful eye of a Korean-American instructor. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997804896-QBKJBJDSFV78BOKJ8VXY/29_D6C4136.jpg Afghan National Institute of Music A young woman practices the violin. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997808759-7903F9CNTHPBJFJVZHEU/33_L1009582.jpg Afghan National Institute of Music A seventh-grade pianist poses before resuming her practice at the Afghan National Institute of Music in Kabul. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/national-museum-of-afghanistan daily 0.75 2020-08-07 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534383767930-4PYVM020VL2QMQEO73SM/3_84A1391.jpg National Museum of Afghanistan Schoolchildren cluster around a black marble basin carved with Islamic inscriptions from the late fifteenth century CE. A lotus blossom chiseled on its underside led scholars to believe that the basin originally might have been Buddhist and centuries older. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534383768175-F3LUW49Q60E1Q0F8D8PU/7_84A1488.jpg National Museum of Afghanistan Schoolchildren observe metal and clay artifacts on display at the museum, some dating back to prehistoric times. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534383770094-Q03048WVHLMII845X6QS/11_84A2131.jpg National Museum of Afghanistan At the National Museum of Afghanistan, children file past a clay statue of a sitting Bodhisattva (third to fourth century CE from Tepe Maranjan outside Kabul) that was painstakingly repaired after the Taliban smashed it. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534383770396-J9XCH2XE2N5Z2UQEBMBY/15_84A2266.jpg National Museum of Afghanistan Schoolgirls and boys are guided past exhibits at the National Museum of Afghanistan in Kabul. The museum has become the centerpiece of attempts by Afghan educators to teach the post-war generation about their country’s rich and diverse culture. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534383771673-KVL80PL587S57OPL49IW/16_5D6C4437.jpg National Museum of Afghanistan Schoolchildren gaze at one of the museum’s many rich ethnographic displays, exhibiting the traditional dresses, jewelry, and costumes worn by Afghanistan’s many ethnicities. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534383772728-UHK1JN0FDELZF3ABQ168/22_84A0809.jpg National Museum of Afghanistan Field Director Alejandro Gallego Lopez, from the University of Chicago’s Oriental Institute, leads a team of Afghan and international museum specialists and conservators who are cataloging thousands of artifacts from Hadda destroyed by the Taliban. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534383773675-052KDDC2T0TPU4W8NCWK/24_84A2436.jpg National Museum of Afghanistan Museum Curator Basir Kamjo holds a damaged head of a Buddha from Hadda, in Nangarhar province, eastern Afghanistan. The Gandhara-era statues were destroyed when looters, and later the Taliban, ransacked the museum in 2001. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534383774184-3EHPUYD2GHSP8NYM8OQR/26_84A0093.jpg National Museum of Afghanistan Conservator Ghufran Hanifi stabilizes the coloring of the robes on a clay sculpture excavated from Surkh Kotal in Baghlan https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534383776245-1BAGLWQX681TV7EM07UD/30_D6C3320.jpg National Museum of Afghanistan Two women pass by a sign for the National Museum of Afghanistan located near the visitors’ center in the museum’s garden. The sign is written in Dari, Pashtu, and English. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534383776352-30SVABUGRBASXCXWZMZY/37_D6C3392.jpg National Museum of Afghanistan Two National Police officers open the metal gates to the National Museum of Afghanistan. This entrance, which looks across to Darulaman Palace, was installed in 2013 with funds from the U.S. Embassy, Kabul, to enhance security of vehicles entering the museum grounds. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/noh-gunbad-balkh-province daily 0.75 2019-11-13 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998559437-OMQ75HSF12P5ZX161WDF/3_D6C0554.jpg Noh Gunbad, Balkh Province Providing only partial protection from the strong winds and harsh climate of the Balkh plain, a metal structure was installed to cover the site decades before any comprehensive preservation work was undertaken. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998558924-8FAEFX5L4WX3GLP4CSSI/7_D6C1296.jpg Noh Gunbad, Balkh Province Noh Gunbad, which means nine domes, dates to the eighth century CE and is Afghanistan’s earliest known Islamic structure. The site remains a popular pilgrimage destination for the adjoining shrine, Haji Piyada, built later. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998570861-66EEEEK92YZ57DQZJ4NV/12_D6C0914.jpg Noh Gunbad, Balkh Province The crafted stucco adorning the eighth century CE pillars of Noh Gunbad in Balkh is stabilized by conservation experts to maintain their intricate and unique decorative forms. An international team of experts, led by the Aga Khan Trust for Culture, has conducted groundbreaking preservation work at this site since 2009. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998569289-BFMAW5K89J4LRNTMRQH8/18_D6C1266.jpg Noh Gunbad, Balkh Province Daniel Ibled, a member of the project’s restoration team, works to reveal and consolidate the ornamentation at Noh Gunbad in Balkh. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998576876-RO3SY3Z2P9UWM03EFSLE/25_D6C1783.jpg Noh Gunbad, Balkh Province A laborer sifts and screens dirt to be used when mixing concrete. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998583788-AGA8UG5UN1QYAIHXNGDV/35_D6C1518.jpg Noh Gunbad, Balkh Province Six pillars preserved by a French restoration team stand underneath a protective roof. The dirt floor made up of collapsed tiles from the roof will be un-earthed. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998591108-V0Y93R19I5XZZKBUBD38/41_D6C1008.jpg Noh Gunbad, Balkh Province The famed nine domes of Noh Gunbad caved in many centuries ago, burying the mosque’s interior. Here a pillar has been partially un-earthed by a team of international and Afghan archaeologists. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998591752-LXXSTU3D5IQBKDJFEVRU/53_D6C1751.jpg Noh Gunbad, Balkh Province A farmer carries fresh forage for his horse near the Old Balkh city wall, a daily chore that has remained the same since Alexander the Great set up camp here in 330 BCE and left the lasting imprint of Greek civilization in central Asia. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998595594-7O9DMLGUQVTSNR3V1LF0/58_D6C1595.jpg Noh Gunbad, Balkh Province Women stride along Balkh’s earthen wall, not far from the shrine of Rabaya-e-Balkhi, a famous woman poet of the Samanid dynasty (ninth–tenth century CE) who was killed after her brother discovered her love for a slave. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/herat-shrines daily 0.75 2019-11-13 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1535738804984-ALHQRMQL9VMCWXI2U0UD/1_19_D6C9534.jpg Herat Shrines Women and children leave Shahzada Abdullah in Khuandiz, in the historic center of Herat, once capital of Central Asia. Under the patronage of Queen Gowhar Shad, the daughter-in-law of Tamerlane, Herat was a center of arts and learning in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries CE. Clad in plain-fired brick, the tomb’s exterior is graced with ogee portal arches. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1535738805184-0027LATJ4OT409ZD2Z04/2_15_D6C9447.jpg Herat Shrines Women visit the tomb of Prince Abdullah bin Mu’awiyya inside Shahzada Abdullah mausoleum in Herat, Afghanistan. Built in the fifteenth century CE, the mausoleum features some of the finest Timurid tile-work from medieval Herat. The tomb’s restoration was carried out by the Afghan Cultural Heritage Consulting Organization (ACHCO) with financial support from the U.S. Embassy in Kabul. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1535738806127-V4B24HVHL5GKZS0JZF3A/3_5_D6C9238.jpg Herat Shrines An ornamental vault, known as a muqarnas, inside Shahzada Abdullah’s mausoleum. These intricate, plaster muqarnas are traditional features in Islamic architecture from Iran all the way to Morocco. During restoration, the muqarnas were repaired and repainted using natural ochre pigments, true to the original techniques. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1535738807076-HGMNO9PLE7EFBFFBEDNX/4_6_D6C9306.jpg Herat Shrines An upward view of the exquisitely painted central dome of the interior of Shahzada Abdullah, spanning 12.5 m, the dome underwent structural stabilization to its original brickwork, and plaster and paint were judiciously re-applied to the most fragile areas. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1535738807300-0D233WYVNAN9AN81SAJP/5_13_D6C9418.jpg Herat Shrines Sunlight filters through an original fire-brick lattice screen, illuminating an intricate geometry of lines in the karabandi style, inside Shahzada Abdullah’s mausoleum. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1535738808541-LFTPPMT7Y3DH09PA25N3/6_16_D6C9272.jpg Herat Shrines A man reads from the Koran in a quiet corner of Shahzada Abdullah‘s mausoleum in Herat. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1535738808695-WF2G8DRZ0W1J5OEZZ1QG/7_24_D6C0223.jpg Herat Shrines Project Engineer Habib Noori gazes out from the rooftop of Shahzada Abdullah’s west iwan, whose dome underwent extensive repairs and stabilization during restoration. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1535738810378-G1BHXP5YG7G8UE3PE7H6/8_20_L1009857.jpg Herat Shrines Herati children clean the gravestone of their grandparents, buried outside the Shahzada Abdullah mausoleum in Herat, Afghanistan. Families traditionally clean the gravestones of their ancestors before the Eid al-Adha (Festival of Sacrifice). https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1535738810463-YDFIBAB2FKDVNZUY36K8/9_28_L1009880.jpg Herat Shrines Near Shahzada Abdullah stands another mausoleum, Shahzada Abdul Qasim, which has elements dating back to the pre-Islamic Sasanian era (second to fifth century CE). While the latter shrine is Shiite, Shahzada Abdullah is Sunni. It is common for devotees in Herat to visit both, a reflection of the citizens’ religious tolerance. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/home daily 0.75 2020-08-13 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534381633057-5CNMKET5ZB5W92ZNFL9K/36_D6C9923.jpg Home The Citadel towers over Herat's bazaar. September 2016 https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/guatemala-bw daily 0.75 2019-05-09 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530293259-YMBMD39PFFN87IK6N9WA/11v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White A dirt road winds through the highland areas of San Juan Cotzal, Guatemala, January 20, 1982. The Ixil Maya town was in turmoil after 300 leftist guerrillas from the Guerrilla Army of the Poor, EGP, attacked the Guatemalan army base camp leaving 37 government soldiers dead. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530298526-O22AN5E31TALHDA3WDRU/12v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Guatemalan army soldiers form patrols to search for armed militants from the Guerrilla Army of the Poor, EGP, following an attack 24-hours earlier on January 19, 1982 in San Juan Cotzal, Guatemala. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1541086656280-47XVOWHGGH5FFAJ1KI7Q/3_30_365-0008-011.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Guatemalan army soldiers stand in their base camp following a guerrilla attack a day earlier on January 19, 1982 in San Juan Cotzal, Guatemala. The Ixil Maya town and army were in turmoil after 300 leftist guerrillas from the Guerrilla Army of the Poor, EGP, attacked the government army camp leaving 37 government soldiers dead. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530328181-9HK4NUFY9S5OJXJXC3LR/22v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Two Ixil Maya women, Juana Cordova Marroquin, 20 years, left, and Manuela Cordova Ordoñez, 19 years, right, retrieve water following an early morning gun battle between 300 leftist guerrillas from the Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres, Guerrilla Army of the Poor, EGP, and Guatemalan army soldiers in San Juan Cotzal, Guatemala, January 20, 1982. The attacking EGP guerrillas killed 37 government soldiers. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1554645387129-H77Z7X7SOAIN5OXEVXSJ/25-edit.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Army soldiers fire on local Maya people from a US-made Bell helicopter co-piloted by Guatemalan army General Benedicto Lucas García outside of Santa Cruz del Quiché, Guatemala, January 1, 1982. Scorched earth was a brutal counterinsurgency tactic employed by the Guatemalan military that holistically targeted the insurgent base through complete destruction of infrastructure and food supply, as well as the persecution of civilians suspected of aiding the guerrilla cause. For his role as army general in the internal armed conflict, Benedicto Lucas García was sentenced on May 23, 2018 to 58 years of prison for crimes against humanity, aggravated sexual violence and enforced disappearance. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530323737-GYZ9KWJRIWAWQCH1XOT0/21v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White A crowd in Sololá, Guatemala listen to speeches from the expected candidate General Ángel Aníbal Guevara during the presidential election campaign, February 26, 1982. Handpicked to succeed outgoing president Fernándo Romeo Lucas García, Guevara was declared the winner of the election on March 7, 1982, which was then widely denounced as fraudulent. A military coup d’état on March 23, 1982 led by General Efraín Ríos Montt prevented him from assuming power. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536547407210-EWXTLS0EX52B4G1IOMXK/31v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White The winner of the 1982 presidential elections, General Ángel Aníbal Guevara, center, seated, looks on with political party leaders at a press conference March 25, 1982 following a military coup d’etat March 23, 1982 in Guatemala City, Guatemala. General Guevara was the designated successor to the previous military president General Romeo Lucas Garcia in the March 7 elections followed by a military coup d’état by General Efraín Ríos Montt. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555944494983-PUNPCRQ447173X82W3KC/17v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Women walk along a downtown street October 15, 1982 in Guatemala City, Guatemala. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542089952961-J1XXKOLCFZIVP6E6CM5O/10_20170502.jpg Guatemala in Black and White A military-style band begins playing near the Presidential Palace, where President Efraín Rios Montt arrives for a ceremony in Guatemala City, Guatemala, October 20, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1541087751802-PP8C79FQ44E8G3TPT01Z/2_15_resize.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Civilians watch as President Efraín Rios Montt arrives for a ceremony at the Presidential Palace in Guatemala City, Guatemala, October 20, 1982. Rios Montt’s brief presidency (March 1982-August 1983), in which he installed a military regime, dissolved the congress, and suspended the constitution, is considered to be the most violent period of the conflict. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555944505883-D3CY3RIWXZANNZILIWO8/13v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Army soldiers check identity cards of bus passengers along the Pan American Highway to Chichicastenango, Guatemala, March 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530300383-C264RK334EBQR7W2NVRI/14v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Army soldiers check identity cards of bus passengers along the Pan American Highway to Chichicastenango, Guatemala, March 1, 1982. The Lucas García government and the Guatemalan army had initiated a brutal counterinsurgency program using scorched earth tactics, primarily targeting the Maya population of the highlands and urban centers in an effort to consolidate control over civilians and counteract the influence of insurgency. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555944532901-J229QELVL7Y79AC0CPYX/33v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White A Guatemalan laborer stands near his temporary home along the Guatemalan-Mexican border in northwest Guatemala, January 1, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530305075-K5D57KIZKDJKG6IEXSCT/15v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Local K'iche Maya residents reenact the Spanish conquest of the Americas at an event during the Fiesta de Santo Tomás, Chichicastenango, Guatemala, December 20, 1981. The seven day festival is a syncretism of Catholic traditions, honoring the city's patron saint Thomas, and native Maya traditions. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555944518051-Q4STUEB5ADV9NPSW96PA/28v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Guatemalan army soldiers and unidentified locals clear a section of the Pan American Highway blocked by felled trees during the civil war in Los Encuentros, Guatemala March 7, 1982. The trees were cut by the Guerrilla Army of the Poor, or EGP, to block the road on the day of presidential elections. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1541087759261-LNQ1FB1LLIL7DUM09E07/4_30_resize.jpg Guatemala in Black and White A section of the Pan American Highway was blocked by a destroyed car and felled trees cut by the Guerrilla Army of the Poor, EGP, blocking the road on the day of presidential elections on March 7, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530340539-A7GR8OE67UYZDV84LFXH/27v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Guatemalan army soldiers and unidentified locals clear a section of the Pan American Highway blocked by felled trees during the civil war in Los Encuentros, Guatemala March 7, 1982. The trees were cut by the Guerrilla Army of the Poor, EGP, to block the road on the day of presidential elections. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530289851-7LYHZWSV1I7Z2C8HNPBP/10v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Army soldiers direct a suspected leftist guerrilla into a building for interrogation in the military compound in Santa Cruz del Quiché, Guatemala, January 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530310800-IQAMMVML0LHS3JAGN7OW/18v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Graffiti in support of leftist insurgent groups and anti-government posters collect on a wall in the University of San Carlos campus in Guatemala City, Guatemala, March 1, 1982. The university served as an active space of resistance throughout the domestic armed conflict, challenging the militarization and violence of the state and its U.S.-sponsored imperialistic policies. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530314750-7NAV3S287E8289ZMKB4G/19v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Graffiti in support of leftist insurgent groups collects on a wall in the University of San Carlos campus in Guatemala City, Guatemala, March 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530318137-FRJFO0MMHF10NFLIUJU4/20v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Graffiti in support of leftist insurgent groups collects on a wall in the University of San Carlos campus in Guatemala City, Guatemala, March 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530283291-RN3E97I3UKYMLUV5L338/8v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White A stone Roman Catholic church stands in a rural highland area of El Quiché department, Guatemala, January 1, 1984. Guatemala was introduced to the Catholic religion during the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 16th century. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530335260-HW0QP58MDPT20EAXMNI0/26v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Wooden religious statues stand near the front altar of a Catholic church in Santa Cruz del Quiché, Guatemala, January 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530265853-V6HRL3PQMH5N3WRJK5EK/1v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White An extended Maya family stands for a photograph in the rural highlands of El Quiché, Guatemala, May 1, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555904221181-HVGM8D0WM106PO8DM7Z6/25_10A_T53198_C2-Bv2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Members of the Knights of Columbus wearing their formal dress attend the funeral ceremony for Mario Cardinal Casariego, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Guatemala, who died of a heart attack on June 15, 1983, in Guatemala City, Guatemala. Mario Cardinal Casariego was an ardent supporter of the authoritarian regime throughout the domestic armed conflict. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555904222119-VJNBU2WJ1RI4G9022YMW/26_11A_T53198_C2-Bv2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Members of the Knights of Columbus wearing their formal dress attend the funeral ceremony for Mario Cardinal Casariego, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Guatemala, who died of a heart attack on June 15, 1983, in Guatemala City, Guatemala. Mario Cardinal Casariego was an ardent supporter of the authoritarian regime throughout the domestic armed conflict. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555904234806-G61Z29Y5YCQ4WY3SW82B/27_8A_T53198_C2-Bv2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Dignitaries leave the funeral ceremony of Mario Cardinal Casariego, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Guatemala, in Guatemala City following his heart attack on June 15, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1541086655783-XBJODZGONSRAA8WD090N/5_36_T49972_C5.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Guatemala schoolgirls sit in a classroom in Comalapa, Guatemala, February 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530278756-I9JUQYYW9KLLQQMEQ8M8/5v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White An Ixil Maya man sits for a picture in Nebaj, Guatemala, January 1, 1984. The state-sponsored counterinsurgency campaign Operation Sofía was characterized by massacres and indiscriminate oppression that specifically targeted the Ixil Maya population. The 1999 UN-sponsored Historical Clarification Commission determined the actions of the campaign to be “acts of genocide against groups of Maya people.” https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530271950-O2TKWXK2EHW9W06MT7CS/4v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White An Ixil Maya woman wearing a traditional head dress stands for a picture in Nebaj, Guatemala, January 1, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555944497300-XUCPVMEKK1G0SJN4RS4O/6v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White A young Ixil Maya woman, Juana Marcos Ramirez, wears a traditional Ixil head dress and huipil as she works in an open air kitchen in Nebaj, Guatemala, January 1, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530283269-DVBWYGZMDP8K3G75ILES/9v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White A young Ixil Maya girl, Clara Luz Brito Raymundo, 9 years, wearing a traditional head dress stands for a picture in Nebaj, Guatemala, January 1, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530279000-RFZA2DI1KV0Q83SPSDO5/7v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White An Ixil Maya mother, Ana Raymundo Brito, 34 years, and 3 of her 12 children pose for a picture in Nebaj, Guatemala, January 1, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555904233045-WZY1C4MZ3BNU3PYGCNCQ/34_34v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Petrona Brito, an Ixil Maya woman wearing a traditional head dress, sits for a picture in Nebaj, Guatemala, January 1, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530341382-63FR6ZTMKRX23OP0U5GC/35v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Señor Brito, the Ixil Maya husband of Petrona Brito, sits for a picture in Nebaj, Guatemala, January 1, 1984. During the mid-1980’s, the Guatemalan army forced Señor Brito to join a Civil Defense Patrol where he became sick from long exposures to cold weather and eventually succumbed to a respiratory illness. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530347491-XHRHG2AT3TA5GCULEBG1/39v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Petrona Brito, 45 years, left, sits next to her husband, Señor Brito, in Nebaj, Guatemala, January 1, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530345154-WNOZT1SAV2T6MM6M7YXF/38v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White Two Ixil Maya brothers wearing name tags sit for a picture in Nebaj, Guatemala, January 1, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530272059-HJQXW421UHL98TYXK70U/3v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White A young Ixil Maya girl wearing a traditional head dress, left, sits for a picture with her brother and sister in Nebaj, Guatemala, January 1, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530344653-H2JC17Q19P22522VJWAI/36v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White An Ixil Maya woman wearing a traditional head dress sits for a picture in Nebaj, Guatemala, January 1, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530265854-GOVIVYBP0VWVJWDGHWWW/2v2.jpg Guatemala in Black and White An Ixil Maya family, Josefa Cedillo Marcos, left, 13 years, Juana Cedillo Perez, center, 6 years, Josefa's niece, and Josefa's mother, right, sit for a picture in Nebaj, Guatemala, January 1, 1984. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/media daily 0.75 2020-08-15 https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/cultural-heritage-introduction daily 0.75 2019-11-13 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1548108377969-HJO5YC941AW076IPNR37/1_84A2011.jpg Cultural Heritage - Introduction - Gudri Mosque https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1548108376546-7VTIDSVKC6J4ASSMAGE1/1_L1008822.jpg Cultural Heritage - Introduction - Babur's Garden https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1548125365745-YDZINNMCLO88L2JX0133/3_84A1391.jpg Cultural Heritage - Introduction - National Museum of Afghanistan https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1548108380791-S0NML7NCQ84NAA757X0S/9_D6C5809.jpg Cultural Heritage - Introduction - Afghan National Institute of Music https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1548108531167-J5HHR5B8A5AJTRPDZBKB/12_D6C0914.jpg Cultural Heritage - Introduction - Noh Gunbad, Balkh Province https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1548108536201-BC0P4C04P3QSUUEMTB8O/19_D6C9534.jpg Cultural Heritage - Introduction - Herat Shirines https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/guatemala-color-old daily 0.75 2020-12-28 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511087512-FN5C9J9NAANWNY99E97W/06_01011982_16v2.jpg +Guatemala Color Guatemalan army soldiers armed with Israeli-supplied Galil assault rifles listen to orders before moving out in search of leftist insurgents that attacked the army base one day earlier in San Juan Cotzal, Guatemala, January 20, 1982. Despite its abysmal human rights record, the Guatemalan state received irregular military aid and support from the United States, along with Israel and Argentina, throughout the armed conflict to fund its oppressive counterinsurgency campaigns. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511245643-K1J0M5GV9K219SRAQ1EH/13_E_361_025_A.jpg +Guatemala Color Local male residents listen to a Guatemalan army officer, left, speak about forming Civil Defense Patrols to secure their villages against leftist guerrilla attacks near Huehuetenango, Guatemala on October 1, 1982. The Patrols effectively institutionalized military power at the local level by infiltrating and dissolving community loyalties and reorienting them to serve counterinsurgency efforts. They served a critical role in the systemic violence, inequality, and militarization of the domestic armed conflict. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511289024-N7PBB6F0NA51K4UZQRPW/17_T32833T1_1v2.jpg +Guatemala Color Guatemalan army Colonel Lima Estrada looks over captured weapons and explosives found in a Guerrilla Army of the Poor, EGP, safe house outside of Santa Cruz del Quiché, Guatemala, February 1, 1982. Col. Lima Estrada was the commander of the El Quiché department army garrison. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511444677-L2QX9NDJLBDIGP335XNA/28_T37404T_1v2.jpg +Guatemala Color Members of a local Civil Defense Patrol stand for a photograph in the town square in Todos Santos, Guatemala on September 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511169996-3YZNAZ8K4389HXZERGA4/10_T32833T1_4v2.jpg +Guatemala Color Guatemalan army soldiers armed with Israeli-supplied Galil assault rifles travel in a U.S. manufactured troop transport through possible guerrilla ambush terrain outside of Santa Cruz del Quiché on February 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511564915-FSNRE3BY01P8DDX600I4/34_T37404T1_8.jpg +Guatemala Color A woman observes a Civil Defense Patrol checkpoint in rural Huehuetenango, Guatemala, September 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511631257-VK7JS86NE1JNAX3TCRSY/37_T37404T1_10.jpg +Guatemala Color Local Civil Defense Patrol members on duty along a mountain road in rural Huehuetenango, Guatemala on September 1, 1982. The patrol members were at times given antiquated U.S.-made M-1 carbines. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511765440-QDC0C8OK82XXT5BL7752/43_D_127_006_A.jpg +Guatemala Color Mario Cardinal Casariego, (1909-1983), the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Guatemala, stands for a photograph in front of Iglesia Central in Guatemala City, Guatemala, February 1, 1983. Cardinal Casariego died June 15, 1983 from a heart attack shortly after the March 1983 visit of Pope John Paul ll to Guatemala. Throughout Guatemala's 36-year civil war, Mario Cardinal Casariego was a supporter of the Guatemalan army's authoritarian regime. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511367172-8S4M8R3K9EZ1U4JTTQVA/19_T32118T1_2.jpg +Guatemala Color Guatemalan army Colonel Lima Estrada looks over captured weapons and explosives found in a Guerrilla Army of the Poor, EGP, safe house outside of Santa Cruz del Quiché, Guatemala, February 1, 1982. Col. Lima Estrada was the commander of the El Quiché department army garrison. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511035757-8LLZ4IMO5MVHW9JGPSDO/04_T32118T1_1v2.jpg +Guatemala Color Guatemalan army Colonel Lima Estrada, left, checks on two wounded soldiers brought for medical aid to the army garrison in Santa Cruz del Quiché, Guatemala, January 20, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511018007-HOG7USJGRJ78T53OE73V/01_01011982_25v2.jpg +Guatemala Color Guatemalan army soldiers transfer a dead soldier from a helicopter to a stretcher in Santa Cruz del Quiché, Guatemala, January 20, 1982. On January 19, 1982, the Guerrilla Army of the Poor, EGP, attacked the army garrison in San Juan Cotzal, 60 miles north, with a reported 300 insurgents killing 37 government soldiers. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511626179-PAPKOGPJYUHY9KV2DO6K/36_T37404T1_9.jpg +Guatemala Color Local Civil Defense Patrol members patrol along a mountain road in rural Huehuetenango, Guatemala on September 1, 1982. The Civil Defense Patrols effectively institutionalized military power at the local level by infiltrating and dissolving community loyalties and reorienting them to serve counterinsurgency efforts. They served a critical role in the systemic violence, inequality, and militarization of the domestic armed conflict. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511382401-ET25YQ5IE6MUHUWVWQXY/24_T32961T1_2v2.jpg +Guatemala Color Guatemalan army soldiers oversee men lining up to vote in the presidential election in Sololá, Guatemala on March 7, 1982. General Ángel Aníbal Guevara was declared the winner of the election, which was then widely denounced as fraudulent. A military coup d’état on March 23, 1982 led by General Efraín Ríos Montt prevented him from assuming power. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511330887-QISAD9WH761AVQP5SKM5/20_T32961T1_3v2.jpg +Guatemala Color Guatemalan army soldiers and unidentified locals clear a section of the Pan American Highway blocked by felled trees during the ongoing civil war in Los Encuentros, Guatemala March 7, 1982. The trees were cut by the Guerrilla Army of the Poor, EGP, blocking the road the day of presidential elections. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511348164-TGJ8NRRQW6TBVXC3G20M/21_T32961T1_4v2.jpg +Guatemala Color Guatemalan army soldiers, armed with Israeli-supplied Galil assault rifles, and unidentified locals clear a section of the Pan American Highway blocked by felled trees during the ongoing civil war in Los Encuentros, Guatemala March 7, 1982. The trees were cut by the Guerrilla Army of the Poor, EGP, blocking the road the day of presidential elections. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511362698-80Y5PRMO5S0WAIFYCJX5/22_E_361_034_Av2.jpg +Guatemala Color Local male residents and members of Civil Defense Patrols help reconstruct a bridge destroyed by members of the Guatemalan Army of the Poor, EGP, with Guatemalan army engineers in Huehuetenango, Guatemala, October 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511592281-00FMF2X4S0S879SRJO26/35_T37404T1_6.jpg +Guatemala Color A member of a local Civil Defense Patrol speaks to a reporter in rural Huehuetenango, Guatemala, September 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511528918-R9SEPI0UO7HV6IC8VF91/32_T37404T1_4.jpg +Guatemala Color Members of a local Civil Defense Patrol check a truck driver's identity papers along a mountain road in rural Huehuetenango, Guatemala, September 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573671648193-1I4AQISP3J1BDG9AF34L/09_T32833T1_5v2.jpg +Guatemala Color Guatemalan army soldiers armed with Israeli-supplied Galil assault rifles travel in a U.S. manufactured troop transport through possible guerrilla ambush terrain outside of Santa Cruz del Quiché on February 1, 1982. Despite its abysmal human rights record, the Guatemalan state received irregular military aid and support from the United States, along with Israel and Argentina, throughout the armed conflict to fund its oppressive counterinsurgency campaigns. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511450731-PUTRY6BTOJXTXKR82CW6/29_T37404T1_2v2.jpg +Guatemala Color A local Civil Defense Patrol holds a meeting in the village square in Todos Santos, Guatemala on September 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511818612-DZHHVTVGPCRDK4XT8G4P/48_T45843TK1_3.jpg +Guatemala Color An Ixil Maya woman sits for a photograph inside the Pensíon Ardavin in Nebaj, Guatemala on January 1, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511831230-P4ZYOTM4NG41U2O9BP4Y/49_T45843TK1_5v2.jpg +Guatemala Color An Ixil Maya couple, Petrona Brito, left, and Señor Brito, right, with the wife wearing a traditional head dress, sit for a picture in Nebaj, Guatemala January 1, 1984. During the mid-1980’s, the Guatemalan army forced Señor Brito to join a Civil Defense Patrol where he became sick from long exposures to cold weather and eventually succumbed to a respiratory illness. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511777466-M4R39K874ZVO5W0QR9E0/46_T45843TK1_1v2.jpg +Guatemala Color Josefa Cedillo Marcos, left, 13 years, Juana Cedillo Perez, center, 6 years, and cousin of Josefa, and Señora Cedillo Marcos, right and mother of Josefa, sit for a photograph in the Pensíon Ardavin in Nebaj, Guatemala on January 1, 1984. Josefa Cedillo Marcos grew up to be a school teacher and witnessed frequent armed violence of the civil war in the Ixil Maya region. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1572898337458-BIVTVUHP0TGAKWNU2UQ4/47_T45843TK1_2.jpg +Guatemala Color Older sister Cedillo Marcos, 5 years, left, Pedro Cedillo Marcos, center, 2 years, Marcelina Cedillo Marcos, right, 4 years, sit for a photograph in the Pensíon Ardavin in Nebaj, Guatemala on January 1, 1984. Marcelina Cedillo Marcos grew up to be a schoolteacher and witnessed frequent armed violence of the civil war in the Ixil Maya region. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511709768-2M3GPU2DJ24HIA6OFF4P/41_T40228T1_4.jpg +Guatemala Color A young Maya woman prays during the visit of Pope John Paul ll in Guatemala City, Guatemala, March 7, 1983. During his visit, the Pope condemned the country’s human rights atrocities and the state’s violence and oppression against its indigenous Maya population. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511684962-MZQG72VNMQ047Z5O9VCE/40_T39865T1_1.jpg +Guatemala Color A cross is raised by a Guatemalan work crew during preparations for an open air mass by Pope John Paul ll in Guatemala City, Guatemala, February 26, 1983. Religion played a fundamental role in the civil war for both the guerrilla insurgency, who sympathized with the socially progressive Catholic movement of liberation theology, and the Guatemalan state, who used Fundamental Protestantism, and specifically the evangelical movement, as a means to stifle opposition to the military dictatorship and subvert the expansion of liberties and individual responsibility promoted through liberation theology. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511731764-IKEPP1TD2ZDC4ZV1ECGQ/42_T40228T1_2.jpg +Guatemala Color Pope John Paul ll greets the crowd at his open air mass in Guatemala City, Guatemala on March 7, 1983. During his visit, the Pope condemned the country’s human rights atrocities and the state’s violence and oppression against its indigenous Maya population. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511672514-3HD3C65M3HK9JY4P7NKP/39_T33919T1_1.jpg +Guatemala Color A Guatemalan man with a face mask of a bull stands against a wall during a festival near the Roman Catholic church of Santo Tomás in Chichicastenango, Guatemala, May 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511269334-VV84CS3WIXG5WHWHBU9E/16_E_361_024_Av2.jpg +Guatemala Color Local residents watch as Guatemalan army soldiers show captured banners made by the militant guerrilla group Guerrilla Army of the Poor, EGP, in Huehuetenango, Guatemala, October 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511641684-1COWHTT6NW9ZLLJIDHIA/38_T37404T1_5v2.jpg +Guatemala Color A local photographer prepares to take a picture in a rural town in Huehuetenango, Guatemala on September 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511838619-88NWK6A987PL8LHKX3EG/50_T45843TK1_4v2.jpg +Guatemala Color Ixil Maya men leave the central plaza following a Roman Catholic Church service in Nebaj, Guatemala on January 1, 1984. Religion played a fundamental role in the civil war for both the guerrilla insurgency, who sympathized with the socially progressive Catholic movement of liberation theology, and the Guatemalan state, who used Fundamental Protestantism, and specifically the evangelical movement, as a means to stifle opposition to the military dictatorship and subvert the expansion of liberties and individual responsibility promoted through liberation theology. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555511747534-05NNOKBQ8LTDW5H3IC2M/44_T42027T1_1v2.jpg +Guatemala Color Guatemalan Defense Minister Brigadier General Óscar Mejía Víctores, 1930-2016, center, walks along the casket of Cardinal Casariego, Archbishop of Guatemala, who died June 15, 1983 from a heart attack following the March 1983 visit of Pope John Paul ll to Guatemala. General Mejía Víctores deposed President and General Ríos Montt in a coup d’état on August 8, 1983. Mejía has since been indicted in both Spain and Guatemala on charges of genocide, as well as torture and crimes against humanity, for his rule as president in the internal armed conflict. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/guatemala-bw-old daily 0.75 2020-12-28 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530278756-I9JUQYYW9KLLQQMEQ8M8/5v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White An Ixil Maya man sits for a picture in Nebaj, Guatemala, January 1, 1984. The state-sponsored counterinsurgency campaign Operation Sofía was characterized by massacres and indiscriminate oppression that specifically targeted the Ixil Maya population. The 1999 UN-sponsored Historical Clarification Commission determined the actions of the campaign to be “acts of genocide against groups of Maya people.” https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1554645387129-H77Z7X7SOAIN5OXEVXSJ/25-edit.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Army soldiers fire on local Maya people from a US-made Bell helicopter co-piloted by Guatemalan army General Benedicto Lucas García outside of Santa Cruz del Quiché, Guatemala, January 1, 1982. Scorched earth was a brutal counterinsurgency tactic employed by the Guatemalan military that holistically targeted the insurgent base through complete destruction of infrastructure and food supply, as well as the persecution of civilians suspected of aiding the guerrilla cause. For his role as army general in the internal armed conflict, Benedicto Lucas García was sentenced on May 23, 2018 to 58 years of prison for crimes against humanity, aggravated sexual violence and enforced disappearance. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530293259-YMBMD39PFFN87IK6N9WA/11v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White A dirt road winds through the highland areas of San Juan Cotzal, Guatemala, January 20, 1982. The Ixil Maya town was in turmoil after 300 leftist guerrillas from the Guerrilla Army of the Poor, EGP, attacked the Guatemalan army base camp leaving 37 government soldiers dead. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536547407210-EWXTLS0EX52B4G1IOMXK/31v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White The winner of the 1982 presidential elections, General Ángel Aníbal Guevara, center, seated, looks on with political party leaders at a press conference March 25, 1982 following a military coup d’etat March 23, 1982 in Guatemala City, Guatemala. General Guevara was the designated successor to the previous military president General Romeo Lucas Garcia in the March 7 elections followed by a military coup d’état by General Efraín Ríos Montt. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530328181-9HK4NUFY9S5OJXJXC3LR/22v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Two Ixil Maya women, Juana Cordova Marroquin, 20 years, left, and Manuela Cordova Ordoñez, 19 years, right, retrieve water following an early morning gun battle between 300 leftist guerrillas from the Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres, Guerrilla Army of the Poor, EGP, and Guatemalan army soldiers in San Juan Cotzal, Guatemala, January 20, 1982. The attacking EGP guerrillas killed 37 government soldiers. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530272059-HJQXW421UHL98TYXK70U/3v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White A young Ixil Maya girl wearing a traditional head dress, left, sits for a picture with her brother and sister in Nebaj, Guatemala, January 1, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1541087751802-PP8C79FQ44E8G3TPT01Z/2_15_resize.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Civilians watch as President Efraín Rios Montt arrives for a ceremony at the Presidential Palace in Guatemala City, Guatemala, October 20, 1982. Rios Montt’s brief presidency (March 1982-August 1983), in which he installed a military regime, dissolved the congress, and suspended the constitution, is considered to be the most violent period of the conflict. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542089952961-J1XXKOLCFZIVP6E6CM5O/10_20170502.jpg + Guatemala Black & White A military-style band begins playing near the Presidential Palace, where President Efraín Rios Montt arrives for a ceremony in Guatemala City, Guatemala, October 20, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1541086656280-47XVOWHGGH5FFAJ1KI7Q/3_30_365-0008-011.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Guatemalan army soldiers stand in their base camp following a guerrilla attack a day earlier on January 19, 1982 in San Juan Cotzal, Guatemala. The Ixil Maya town and army were in turmoil after 300 leftist guerrillas from the Guerrilla Army of the Poor, EGP, attacked the government army camp leaving 37 government soldiers dead. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530323737-GYZ9KWJRIWAWQCH1XOT0/21v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White A crowd in Sololá, Guatemala listen to speeches from the expected candidate General Ángel Aníbal Guevara during the presidential election campaign, February 26, 1982. Handpicked to succeed outgoing president Fernándo Romeo Lucas García, Guevara was declared the winner of the election on March 7, 1982, which was then widely denounced as fraudulent. A military coup d’état on March 23, 1982 led by General Efraín Ríos Montt prevented him from assuming power. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530347491-XHRHG2AT3TA5GCULEBG1/39v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Petrona Brito, 45 years, left, sits next to her husband, Señor Brito, in Nebaj, Guatemala, January 1, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530298526-O22AN5E31TALHDA3WDRU/12v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Guatemalan army soldiers form patrols to search for armed militants from the Guerrilla Army of the Poor, EGP, following an attack 24-hours earlier on January 19, 1982 in San Juan Cotzal, Guatemala. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530318137-FRJFO0MMHF10NFLIUJU4/20v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Graffiti in support of leftist insurgent groups collects on a wall in the University of San Carlos campus in Guatemala City, Guatemala, March 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555944505883-D3CY3RIWXZANNZILIWO8/13v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Army soldiers check identity cards of bus passengers along the Pan American Highway to Chichicastenango, Guatemala, March 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530289851-7LYHZWSV1I7Z2C8HNPBP/10v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Army soldiers direct a suspected leftist guerrilla into a building for interrogation in the military compound in Santa Cruz del Quiché, Guatemala, January 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530279000-RFZA2DI1KV0Q83SPSDO5/7v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White An Ixil Maya mother, Ana Raymundo Brito, 34 years, and 3 of her 12 children pose for a picture in Nebaj, Guatemala, January 1, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530283269-DVBWYGZMDP8K3G75ILES/9v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White A young Ixil Maya girl, Clara Luz Brito Raymundo, 9 years, wearing a traditional head dress stands for a picture in Nebaj, Guatemala, January 1, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555904234806-G61Z29Y5YCQ4WY3SW82B/27_8A_T53198_C2-Bv2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Dignitaries leave the funeral ceremony of Mario Cardinal Casariego, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Guatemala, in Guatemala City following his heart attack on June 15, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530305075-K5D57KIZKDJKG6IEXSCT/15v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Local K'iche Maya residents reenact the Spanish conquest of the Americas at an event during the Fiesta de Santo Tomás, Chichicastenango, Guatemala, December 20, 1981. The seven day festival is a syncretism of Catholic traditions, honoring the city's patron saint Thomas, and native Maya traditions. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555904222119-VJNBU2WJ1RI4G9022YMW/26_11A_T53198_C2-Bv2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Members of the Knights of Columbus wearing their formal dress attend the funeral ceremony for Mario Cardinal Casariego, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Guatemala, who died of a heart attack on June 15, 1983, in Guatemala City, Guatemala. Mario Cardinal Casariego was an ardent supporter of the authoritarian regime throughout the domestic armed conflict. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555904221181-HVGM8D0WM106PO8DM7Z6/25_10A_T53198_C2-Bv2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Members of the Knights of Columbus wearing their formal dress attend the funeral ceremony for Mario Cardinal Casariego, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Guatemala, who died of a heart attack on June 15, 1983, in Guatemala City, Guatemala. Mario Cardinal Casariego was an ardent supporter of the authoritarian regime throughout the domestic armed conflict. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530265854-GOVIVYBP0VWVJWDGHWWW/2v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White An Ixil Maya family, Josefa Cedillo Marcos, left, 13 years, Juana Cedillo Perez, center, 6 years, Josefa's niece, and Josefa's mother, right, sit for a picture in Nebaj, Guatemala, January 1, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555944494983-PUNPCRQ447173X82W3KC/17v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Women walk along a downtown street October 15, 1982 in Guatemala City, Guatemala. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555944518051-Q4STUEB5ADV9NPSW96PA/28v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Guatemalan army soldiers and unidentified locals clear a section of the Pan American Highway blocked by felled trees during the civil war in Los Encuentros, Guatemala March 7, 1982. The trees were cut by the Guerrilla Army of the Poor, or EGP, to block the road on the day of presidential elections. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530283291-RN3E97I3UKYMLUV5L338/8v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White A stone Roman Catholic church stands in a rural highland area of El Quiché department, Guatemala, January 1, 1984. Guatemala was introduced to the Catholic religion during the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 16th century. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530310800-IQAMMVML0LHS3JAGN7OW/18v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Graffiti in support of leftist insurgent groups and anti-government posters collect on a wall in the University of San Carlos campus in Guatemala City, Guatemala, March 1, 1982. The university served as an active space of resistance throughout the domestic armed conflict, challenging the militarization and violence of the state and its U.S.-sponsored imperialistic policies. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530345154-WNOZT1SAV2T6MM6M7YXF/38v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Two Ixil Maya brothers wearing name tags sit for a picture in Nebaj, Guatemala, January 1, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530335260-HW0QP58MDPT20EAXMNI0/26v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Wooden religious statues stand near the front altar of a Catholic church in Santa Cruz del Quiché, Guatemala, January 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1541086655783-XBJODZGONSRAA8WD090N/5_36_T49972_C5.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Guatemala schoolgirls sit in a classroom in Comalapa, Guatemala, February 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1555944532901-J229QELVL7Y79AC0CPYX/33v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White A Guatemalan laborer stands near his temporary home along the Guatemalan-Mexican border in northwest Guatemala, January 1, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530265853-V6HRL3PQMH5N3WRJK5EK/1v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White An extended Maya family stands for a photograph in the rural highlands of El Quiché, Guatemala, May 1, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1536530271950-O2TKWXK2EHW9W06MT7CS/4v2.jpg + Guatemala Black & White An Ixil Maya woman wearing a traditional head dress stands for a picture in Nebaj, Guatemala, January 1, 1984. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/el-salvador-color daily 0.75 2020-08-15 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150432156-UZUEN9P93IAA5ZLO3K0K/23a_C242012Av2.jpg Color Two members of the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, pose for a picture near Santa Anita, Chalatenango department, El Salvador, February 23, 1981. Salvadoran women were present in all levels of leadership in guerrilla organizations, constituting their significant incorporation into the political struggle. An estimated 30% of the full force of the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, was comprised of women. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150359863-ZDMAZLL3FWQOTQJ4F8B6/1v2.jpg Color Salvadoran army soldiers from the Atlacatl Battalion cross a river during a military operation in pursuit of guerrillas from the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, in San Miguel department, El Salvador, August 23, 1983. Rapid reaction battalions were trained in counterinsurgency tactics to combat guerrilla warfare and were designed and funded by the United States military. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150453448-6Y8JRN3CX0JWV7N8PUB1/40_T46343_T1v2.jpg Color United States Secretary of State George Shultz makes a statement to the media upon arrival at the military airport in Ilopango, El Salvador, January 31, 1984. Shultz was met by Salvadoran Foreign Minister Fidel Chavez Mena, center right. Considered the "last major battle of the Cold War", the Central American conflicts drew significant attention from Washington, with officials frequently visiting the region to assess strategies as well as encourage the doctrines of military victory and democracy building. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150461428-THXD5L1GU8NPYS5LS6RS/41_T43909v2.jpg Color Laborers repair a road for a work-for-pay-and-food construction program sponsored by the United States Agency for International Development, USAID, in San Vicente, El Salvador, April 1, 1983. USAID efforts in El Salvador were dramatically shaped by U.S. geopolitical concerns during the Cold War. Social and economic programs served as both humanitarian relief and a counterinsurgency strategy of pacification that was refined from its previous employment during the Vietnam War. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150371433-UZTCZN0B0YAW7CKP5AHR/3v2.jpg Color Lieutenant Colonel Domingo Monterrosa, right, speaks with one of his junior officers, left, as soldiers from the Atlacatl Battalion pursue guerrillas from the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, in San Miguel department, El Salvador, August 23, 1983. Monterrosa trained at the School of the Americas and headed the controversial Atlacatl Battalion, one of the rapid reaction counterinsurgency battalions coordinated and funded by the United States. Monterrosa was killed in a helicopter explosion along with 13 other army soldiers while they were retrieving a booby trapped FMLN radio transmitter in Joateca, Morazán department, October 24, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150359800-E2AJR2Z5Z4TG7ES8FNWC/2_T40336_T1v2.jpg Color Two armed guerrillas from the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, watch for oncoming traffic as vehicles burn in the background during a transportation strike in eastern Usulután department, El Salvador, March 1, 1983. Guerrillas tactics for disrupting the transportation of commercial goods were employed in protest of economic inequality and to show defiance to the authoritarian regime. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150421798-D475OWKYG81Q8LUZNNJV/20_T41120v2.jpg Color Residents look at the body of an executed man left in a neighborhood on the outskirts of San Salvador, El Salvador, May 1, 1983. The country was engaged in a twelve-year civil war between successive authoritarian regimes, backed by the United States, and the guerrilla coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN. The conflict would claim over 75,000 lives before peace negotiations concluded in 1992. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150371364-JBRNPX0UD82H93G2L2T4/2v2.jpg Color Salvadoran Minister of Defense General Carlos Eugenio Vides Casanova, left, toasts U.S. Army Colonel John D. Waghelstein, right, as deputy chief of mission at the U.S. Embassy in El Salvador Kenneth W. Bleakley, center, oversees a ceremony honoring Col. Waghelstein prior to his departure from the country, San Salvador, El Salvador, June 1, 1983. In 2002, Vides Casanova was convicted in the United States of war crimes committed under his leadership and was deported in 2015 to El Salvador from the U.S. where he had resided as a legal permanent resident since 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150396468-AHHDPA0BFQRNOTWNF1OT/10_T43534_T1v2.jpg Color View of weapons, explosives, medical supplies and pieces of guerrilla propaganda found by government security forces in a Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, safe house in San Salvador, El Salvador, September 1, 1983. FPL, as a member of the coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front, FMLN, acquired arms and strategic support from socialist parties in Vietnam, Nicaragua, Cuba, and the Soviet Union to fund their campaigns. The FMLN and their political counterpart the Frente Democrático Revolucionario, FDR, were recognized as the established insurgency in El Salvador and played an integral role in the 1992 peace accords. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150409763-METSHNW4CXXVWBC0FX9C/10v2-1.jpg Color Salvadoran soldiers from the Atlacatl Rapid Reaction Battalion wake in the early morning of fog-enveloped hills before moving into position against armed guerrillas from the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, in San Miguel department, El Salvador, August 23, 1983. The Atlacatl Battalion was trained at Ft. Bragg in the United States by U.S. Special Forces as the first rapid response counterinsurgency battalion and was implicated in some of the most infamous human rights violations of the twelve-year armed conflict. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150442064-L5MFB6RG4H0T05915L66/28_AA409003Av2.jpg Color Journalists interview local residents as they move their belongings before an assault by the Atlacatl Battalion during a military operation in pursuit of guerrillas from the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, in Tenancingo, El Salvador, September 27, 1983. Every major paper and wire service had a bureau in El Salvador while international concern maintained the Central American conflicts as hemispheric battles over communist expansion. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150382432-GBWA15QGRTQBSTJO8WOS/7_T43765v2.jpg Color A guerrilla from the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, stands on the street as black smoke rises during combat with government security forces in San Miguel, El Salvador, September 1, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150409297-H70P2QBC0W0Q4DXYI1AF/11_T43534_T1v2.jpg Color A member of the guerrilla organization Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, speaks to the media after he was captured by Salvadoran security forces near a FPL safe house containing weapons, explosives, medical supplies and pieces of guerrilla propaganda in San Salvador, El Salvador, September 1, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150562055-3N38Q8ISUJ3UFAFJ2AVG/ES15.jpg Color United States Navy Lieutenant Commander Albert Schaufelberger, 34 years, speaks to the media while visiting the Salvadoran naval base in La Unión, El Salvador, May 18, 1983. Schaufelberger was assassinated by leftist insurgents days later near the Central American University in San Salvador, El Salvador on May 25, 1983. Schaufelberger was the senior U.S. Naval representative and security chief for the 55 U.S. Military Advisors in the country. He was the first U.S. serviceman killed in the twelve-year armed conflict. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150482842-BD4MFSAQ0UDDMMC9DELI/53_T39621_T2v2.jpg Color Father Renato Pellachin, an Italian Franciscan priest, left, speaks with leftist guerrilla officials from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, center and right, in La Reina, El Salvador, February 4, 1983. During the twelve-year civil war, the Catholic Church in El Salvador often condemned the violence and oppression committed by the authoritarian regime, with some members of the clergy sharing guerrilla sympathies. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150490396-P5O0R4FOHYLUVTCWM0UT/55v2.jpg Color United Nations Ambassador Jeane Kirkpatrick, center, arrives in El Salvador during a ten-day tour of Central America and is escorted by United States Ambassador to El Salvador Deane Hinton, left, for a series of meetings in San Salvador, El Salvador, February 9, 1983. Kirkpatrick was a close advisor to President Reagan and maintained an aggressive position on communist activity throughout the latter half of the Cold War. She publicly supported right-wing authoritarian regimes who shared a firm anticommunist stance and advocated for increasing United States support for these regimes in spite of mounting human rights violations against their civilian populations. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150422092-5WOOR5SL0RI35O1RB3GL/21_T33041v2.jpg Color Family members follow a hearse carrying the body of a civilian found murdered on the side of a road on the outskirts of San Salvador, El Salvador, June 1, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150551591-RZU3N49FVCUZDYYV39P9/ES_86.jpg Color Three Salvadoran armed guerrillas from the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, observe a dead body along the highway in southeastern El Salvador, February 1, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150466258-GV96MA8XF2T51RSAO7V7/50_T39621_T1v2.jpg Color Leftist guerrilla leaders from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, address a crowd in front of a banner for the guerilla coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, during a rally in La Palma, El Salvador, February 6, 1983. FMLN was founded on October 10, 1980 as a coalition of five guerrilla organizations with the primary strategy and demands of dissolving the army and paramilitary security forces and establishing effective national agrarian reform. Despite ideological differences between the five organizations, FMLN became the strongest guerrilla army in Latin America in the Cold War period. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150431503-24K232QEPISYGB8T96EN/27_T39757v2.jpg Color International media crowd United States Ambassador at Large to Central America Richard Stone as he prepares to depart at Ilopango Airport, San Salvador, El Salvador, August 1, 1983. Stone was facilitating preliminary peace talks between the leftist political and guerrilla coalition FDR-FMLN and the Salvadoran government. Negotiations between the groups were ongoing throughout the twelve-year civil war. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150473199-DPHSM7EJ3337P9F8UTGG/51_T39621_T1v2.jpg Color Leftist guerrilla leaders from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, address their forces and the public during a rally in La Palma, El Salvador, February 6, 1983. Salvadoran guerrilla organizations formed in the early 1970s and experienced broad support, particularly among the rural sectors of the population, as a consequence of increased state repression and exclusion from political participation. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150479921-JKYITTX1GTZ1T775GP9I/52_T39621_T1v2.jpg Color Guerrillas from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, address a crowd in front of a political banner for the coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, during a rally in La Palma, El Salvador, February 6, 1983. The group drew its name from Salvadoran communist revolutionary Agustín Farabundo Martí who led the 1932 peasant revolt known as La Matanza. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150501514-2I93KAG9U2NU94W9BRBT/140791_1v2.jpg Color An armed guerrilla from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, stops for a picture before moving to his base below the Guazapa volcano in Suchitoto, El Salvador June 1, 1983. FPL was comprised primarily of union workers, university students, and social Christian groups and was one of five organizations within the guerrilla coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150505549-UU9TNE0441RCXDPFUIOW/140791_2v2.jpg Color An armed guerrilla from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, stops for a picture before moving to his base below the Guazapa volcano in Suchitoto, El Salvador, June 1, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150554642-B1NORBTYOEOBJLJ48ZMW/ES01.jpg Color One of 55 United States Army trainers, attached to the U.S. Military Group in El Salvador, right, conducts target practice training to his Salvadoran charges in San Miguel department, El Salvador, August 1, 1984. With the escalation of U.S. military aid in 1981, 55 military advisors, or the Mobile Training Team, MTT, arrived in El Salvador and were stationed at bases around the country. Referred to as “trainers” to discourage comparisons with U.S. advisors during the Vietnam War, the trainers in El Salvador worked to strengthen the military capacity of the Salvadoran Armed Forces, as well as enforce the preferred military strategy of the war’s largest funder, the United States government. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150555629-BNM9KSEJ6NUBRJFT15AO/ES02.jpg Color United States Staff Sergeant Clark Hjelseth, attached to the U.S. Military Group in El Salvador, right, shows a Salvadoran soldier a grouping of bullets during target practice training with Salvadoran army soldiers in San Miguel department, El Salvador, August 1, 1984. With the escalation of U.S. military aid in 1981, 55 military advisors, or the Mobile Training Team, MTT, arrived in El Salvador and were stationed at bases around the country. Regulations on the capacities and number of advisors stationed were largely ignored or circumvented by the Reagan administration. Special training camps were created in neighboring Honduras for Salvadoran military units to avoid restrictions on the country’s advisors limit. Additional advisors were deployed and covertly financed through the CIA under the guise of “intelligence operations”. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150382196-FYQG660SA9YL34AJIVLV/4_T43534v2.jpg Color Salvadoran members of the Guardia Nacional, right, and the Policía Nacional security forces take cover during an attack by guerrillas from the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, in San Miguel, El Salvador, September 1, 1983. Both the Guardia Nacional and the Policía Nacional, along with the Policía de Hacienda, were dissolved and demobilized as a part of the Chapultepec Peace Accords in 1992 for grave human rights violations committed before and during the twelve-year civil war. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150519429-LIB90AV2U0HWEZWXBJJL/ES_8.jpg Color Armed Salvadoran guerrillas from the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, fire at government security forces in eastern El Salvador, May 1, 1983. The country was engaged in a twelve-year civil war between successive authoritarian regimes, backed by the United States, and the guerrilla coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN. The conflict would claim over 75,000 lives before peace negotiations concluded in 1992. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150532923-HAQSICKPCU43DZQFAXLA/ES_36.jpg Color A captured member, second right, of the paramilitary militia Organización Democrática Nacionalista, ORDEN, stands with his family behind a table of weapons following the takeover of their village by leftist guerrillas from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, in San Antonio de la Cruz, El Salvador, February 20, 1981. ORDEN, along with the Agencia Nacional de Seguridad Salvadoreña, ANSESAL, widely considered to be the origin of the death squads, were employed by the military to infiltrate and terrorize rural populations considered subversive to the regime. Although ORDEN was nominally disbanded in 1979, many of its members were folded into civil defense units who continued to use extrajudicial violence and torture against civilians. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150520106-8TZDPJYCCAGJXD6QH9ZK/ES_27.jpg Color Salvadoran army forces and local militia fight off an attack by guerrillas from the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, in a neighborhood cemetery in San Salvador, El Salvador January 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150552109-IBD4BRN18Y2ME1N9P82Z/ES_106.jpg Color Unidentified men look at two corpses in the city morgue in La Libertad, El Salvador, August 10, 1984. Both victims were shot in the face and showed additional signs of bruising. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573150533057-XX81MZBL165LEDF69G9D/ES_46.jpg Color A Salvadoran army door gunner on a United States-supplied Huey helicopter watches for guerrilla movement below in central El Salvador, November 1, 1982. Over the course of the twelve-year civil war, the United States sent more than $6 billion to the Salvadoran government in economic and military aid. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/home-1 daily 0.75 2020-08-14 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573578106299-OUIWYIWHZVTAWFH01BRR/1_D6C0109.jpg Home with Slideshow https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573758133290-WBKXYBKY8D1WT8QZNQFV/12_D6C0914.jpg Home with Slideshow https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573578124898-BRKPC90WC91M3K1O8CXT/16_D6C9272.jpg Home with Slideshow https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573578127438-ME9C1RRNBPI59YYP5SP6/20_L1009857.jpg Home with Slideshow https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573578140745-ZOFLZBLI4VSX1SYX2J9R/33_D6C9870.jpg Home with Slideshow https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573675215309-A674TRLN3PJHNAT5F8CC/29_D6C4136.jpg Home with Slideshow https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/el-salvador-bw daily 0.75 2020-08-15 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593426211-I6SW1K9GLQK1MB0ZIQAJ/01_20180402.jpg Black & White A girl stands on the sidewalk in the Colonia Escalon neighborhood of San Salvador, El Salvador, April 1, 1983. The country was engaged in a twelve-year civil war between successive authoritarian regimes, backed by the United States, and the guerrilla coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN. The conflict would claim over 75,000 lives before peace negotiations concluded in 1992. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593426374-OQYGUZSN7EPTLDYI8REK/02_20180722.jpg Black & White Students attend an outdoor grammar class in territory held by guerrillas from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, near Santa Anita, Chalatenango department, El Salvador, February 22, 1981. The children had been displaced by the ongoing conflict between guerrilla factions and government forces. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574095671197-F2JUJST7GWQHN97KT5KK/201700507_016_CAP.jpg Black & White Military cadets at the Escuela Militar Capitán General Gerardo Barrios stand at attention during a military ceremony in San Salvador, El Salvador, August 11, 1984. Lack of opportunity for social and economic ascension led many young Salvadorans towards military inscription. Graduates from this competitive academy would go on to occupy key positions in the state-military apparatus. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593433543-M5OOODP1VLFHNQGDOHTO/2.jpg Black & White Salvadoran soldiers from the Atlacatl Battalion wake in the early morning in fog-enveloped hills before moving into position against armed guerrillas from the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, in San Miguel department, El Salvador, August 1, 1983. Rapid reaction battalions were trained in counterinsurgency tactics to combat guerrilla warfare and were designed and funded by the United States military. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593440276-3XL8JGZP0QNYDOJ9BRO3/5.jpg Black & White Laborers repair a road for a work-for-pay-and-food construction program sponsored by the United States Agency for International Development, USAID, in San Vicente, El Salvador, April 1, 1983. USAID efforts in El Salvador were dramatically shaped by U.S. geopolitical concerns during the Cold War. Social and economic programs served as both humanitarian relief and a counterinsurgency strategy of pacification that was refined from its previous employment during the Vietnam War. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593440440-P01YL94DXBVQI844D9VQ/06_20180402.jpg Black & White A Salvadoran husband and wife stand on their deeded farmland in San Vicente, El Salvador, June 26, 1983. Agrarian reform initiated in 1980 followed the model previously implemented in the Vietnam War of dividing large pieces of land into cooperatives in an effort to pacify a population considered to be sympathetic to the guerrilla insurgency. However, the model did not attempt to dismantle the landowner oligarchy nor the redistribution of coffee plantations, two critical causes of the armed conflict. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593436228-CIDDGB0RSZLYMQG8D303/4.jpg Black & White View of the corpse of an unidentified guerrilla from the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, on a dirt road in San Miguel department, El Salvador, September 1, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593447765-4E3CEVZ6XA71LMYTAEFF/07_20180402.jpg Black & White A close-up of United States military advisor Colonel John D. Waghelstein as he smokes a cigar during a press conference at the U.S. Embassy in San Salvador, El Salvador, June 28, 1983. Waghelstein served as commander of the U.S. trainers stationed in the country and was one of the army's leading experts on counterinsurgency warfare. Over the course of the civil war from 1980-1992, the United States sent more than $6 billion to the Salvadoran government in economic and military aid. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593443552-S2FBNGR0FK76PY33PMJM/6.jpg Black & White Families congregate on the Pacific coast beach in La Libertad, El Salvador, July 10, 1984. The country was engaged in a twelve-year civil war between successive authoritarian regimes, backed by the United States, and the guerrilla coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN. The conflict would claim over 75,000 lives before peace negotiations concluded in 1992. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593455388-9OD89JDCJGM1FRIW1WDY/7.jpg Black & White Salvadoran military commanders and the head of the Treasury Police Colonel Nicolas Carranza, 3rd left, sit during a ceremony in San Salvador, El Salvador, May 1, 1983. Carranza, as Vice-Minister of Defense and head of the Treasury Police during the armed conflict, exercised command over the forces responsible for widespread attacks on civilians. He was a confirmed informant for the CIA and had received payments from the United States government since the 1960s. He resided in the U.S. from 1985 until his death in 2017. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593456213-H9JKRHK2ROW1QHULT768/08_20180402.jpg Black & White New cadets arrive for their first day at the Escuela Militar Capitán General Gerardo Barrios in San Salvador, El Salvador, January 1, 1983. Lack of opportunity for social and economic ascension led many young Salvadorans towards military inscription. Graduates from this competitive academy would go on to occupy key positions in the state-military apparatus. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593470947-V6XBW402P5XQ13UBTJ3J/13_20180402.jpg Black & White Members of the Atlacatl Battalion tend to a wounded soldier during a military operation in Tenancingo, El Salvador, August 1, 1983. The Atlacatl Battalion was trained at Ft. Bragg in the United States by U.S. Special Forces as the first rapid response counterinsurgency battalion and was implicated in some of the most infamous human rights violations of the twelve-year armed conflict. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593467659-DP0B4PKWVKWPU9SVCS3M/12_20180722.jpg Black & White Salvadoran laborers use a cucharón to load bags of freshly picked coffee beans for export at a privately-owned coffee finca in Santa Tecla, El Salvador, October 1, 1983. El Salvador relied on a primary-export economic model throughout the 20th century with the production of sugar cane, coffee, and cotton as the country’s principal national income. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574095613059-OBW3RV7LSFBSY6APK19U/13_20180722v2.jpg Black & White Salvadoran laborers load bags of freshly picked coffee beans destined for export at a privately-owned coffee finca in Santa Tecla, El Salvador, October 1, 1983. El Salvador’s primary-export economic structure in the 20th century concentrated land ownership and income in the hands of a small economic elite. This oligarchy effectively marginalized the rural sector of the population by closing political and social arenas as well as economic, which resulted in high levels of support for guerrilla insurgents in certain departments of the country. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593479456-R24CKY4PMK7XF3DFIOGV/25_20180402.jpg Black & White Local women wait in line to see medical personnel from El Salvador and the United States during a free medical clinic hosted by Soldier of Fortune magazine in San Francisco Gotera, El Salvador, February 21, 1984. Lieutenant Colonel Robert K. Brown, a Green Beret who served with Special Forces in Vietnam, started the mercenary publication in 1975. Brown and his magazine donated weapons training and $750,000 in medical and surgical equipment to Salvadoran army doctors. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593484159-RPAA7N0ZP2JJ3IF1V2KL/28_20180402.jpg Black & White A woman lights a votive candle during the 4th anniversary of the assassination of Archbishop Óscar Romero in San Salvador, El Salvador, March 24, 1984. Romero spoke out against the indiscriminate violence and inequality of the state regime and was murdered during mass on March 24, 1980 by a right-wing death squad. In 2018 he was canonized as a saint by Pope Francis. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593574264-3Z1UVBBUIOCEH5QJ1M0Q/T52829_2.jpg Black & White The owner of a tire repair shop and his children work on flat tires on a side street in downtown San Salvador, January 1, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593494267-CYG8J7GA9PI6JJTY3S4Q/36_20180109.jpg Black & White Three guerrillas from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, show off M-16 rifles captured from the Salvadoran military after an attack in La Palma, El Salvador, February 6, 1983. Salvadoran women were present in all levels of leadership in guerrilla organizations, constituting their significant incorporation into the political struggle. An estimated 30% of the full force of the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, was comprised of women. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574095650558-HNYY7B9RIFY4FA6X6WQF/67v2.jpg Black & White United Nations Ambassador Jeane Kirkpatrick arrives in El Salvador during a ten-day tour of Central America and is escorted by Salvadoran Foreign Minister Fidel Chavez Mena, left, and United States Ambassador to El Salvador Deane Hinton, right, for a series of meetings in San Salvador, El Salvador, February 9, 1983. Kirkpatrick was a close advisor to President Reagan and maintained an aggressive position on communist activity throughout the latter half of the Cold War. She publicly supported right-wing authoritarian regimes who shared a firm anticommunist stance and advocated for increasing United States support for these regimes in spite of mounting human rights violations against their civilian populations. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593489717-UXON4ER12L0ZQQMB5RC4/33_20180402.jpg Black & White Peruvian author Mario Vargas Llosa, left, interviews Salvadoran President Álvaro Alfredo Magaña, right, at the Presidential Palace in San Salvador, El Salvador, May 10, 1984. Vargas Llosa was writing about the 1984 Salvadoran presidential elections for Time magazine. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593511015-W9W3WOSY1FCP5ZJN047J/47_20180402.jpg Black & White A Salvadoran civilian and relative of a murdered man, center, speaks with journalists regarding the death of six civilians killed by Salvadoran civil defense members in Armenia, El Salvador, April 7, 1984. The six civilians were killed on July 26, 1981 and their bodies were thrown down the well. Civil defense patrols were utilized by the authoritarian state regime as a form of paramilitary control, specifically over the rural sectors of society. The civil defense patrols along with the Salvadoran National Guard were complicit in indiscriminate attacks on peasant cooperatives and villages suspected of subversive sympathies. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593520017-85GWPGYXZKIVZ4W5KSNV/48_20180402.jpg Black & White French radio journalist Edith Caron, center, interviews a Salvadoran National Guardsman, right, regarding the death of six civilians killed and thrown down a nearby well on July 26, 1981 by members of a civil defense unit in Los Mangos, Armenia, El Salvador, April 7, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593501761-THANQK090RIMAC7BO60D/41_20180109.jpg Black & White Members of the media gather in a funeral parlor to film the dead body of a Dutch journalist killed in guerrilla territory two days earlier, San Salvador, El Salvador, March 19, 1982. Jacobus (Koos) Koster, Hans Ter Laan, Jan Kuiper and Johannes (Joop) Willemsen were shot and killed by Salvadoran military forces while they were pursuing an interview with leftist guerrillas from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, in the Chalatenango department. Both the Salvadoran government and the United States embassy in El Salvador denied knowledge of the ambush, claiming that the journalists were caught in an ongoing firefight between guerrilla soldiers and the military, a fact the United Nations Truth Commission for El Salvador refuted in its 1993 publication with witness testimony. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593500264-FSL00TOBSINHSO37RMQR/39_20180402.jpg Black & White A dog rides in the back of a private pick-up truck in downtown San Salvador, El Salvador, June 1, 1983. The country was engaged in a twelve-year civil war between successive authoritarian regimes, backed by the United States, and the guerrilla coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN. The conflict would claim over 75,000 lives before peace negotiations concluded in 1992. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593524218-YY87D4P1IXEY1AYXJTA3/50_20180109.jpg Black & White Salvadoran army recruits, led by a Salvadoran officer trained at the School of the Americas, SOA, in Fort Benning, Georgia, USA, practice teamwork drills at an army base in San Miguel, El Salvador, July 1, 1982. SOA was founded in 1946 by the United States Department of Defense as a training school for Latin American military and police forces. At the advent of the Cold War, the school was assigned an aggressive anti-communist counterinsurgency strategy and many graduates returned to their countries to lead and participate in repressive regimes plagued with human rights abuses. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593533924-0NTI8SODAOQFP77305KI/58_20180109.jpg Black & White Marching band majorettes line up before a military parade for graduating army soldiers in San Salvador, El Salvador, October 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574095654458-R1FNY9WTF11BGQB9TZ4R/73v2.jpg Black & White A group of laborers and their families gather to receive food allotments as part of a work-for-pay-and-food construction program, San Vicente, El Salvador, April 1, 1983. The program was sponsored by USAID, the United States Agency for International Development. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1573067235012-G127PQZNLTG1TD4KYJV5/55_20180402v2.jpg Black & White United States Secretary of State George Shultz makes a statement to the media upon arrival at the military airport in Ilopango, El Salvador, January 31, 1984. Shultz was met by Salvadoran Foreign Minister Fidel Chavez Mena, center right. The United States served as an internal actor in the twelve-year armed conflict, sending more than $6 billion to the Salvadoran government in economic and military aid. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593485575-GUBIQMF3G7P0SR4HXSBC/32_20180109.jpg Black & White Armed guerrillas from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, disembark from a passenger bus in La Palma, El Salvador, February 6, 1983. FPL was comprised primarily of union workers, university students, and social Christian groups and was one of five organizations within the guerrilla coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593549237-D7X7KO9F6YDBQNL2Y6SX/64_20180109.jpg Black & White A woman and her children wait for bus transportation in the Mejicanos suburb of San Salvador, El Salvador, March 1, 1983. The country was engaged in a twelve-year civil war between successive authoritarian regimes, backed by the United States, and the guerrilla coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN. The conflict would claim over 75,000 lives before peace negotiations concluded in 1992. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593522905-773QW9HT8GZY86791CCZ/49_20180109.jpg Black & White Civilians look over the dead bodies of three civil defensemen killed during an overnight attack by guerrillas from the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, in Santa Clara, El Salvador, July 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593517544-AZH3G99EU7SK1P08B44I/48_20180109.jpg Black & White The sister of a civil defenseman, center, faints upon hearing of the death of her brother during an overnight attack on the civil defense post in Santa Clara, El Salvador, July 1, 1982. Guerrillas from the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, attacked overnight killing six civil defensemen before Salvadoran army soldiers arrived the next morning to retake the town. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593550579-DMPUVWIIJQTUVM4BFXPC/67_20180109.jpg Black & White A young boy cuts sugarcane on a private farm in San Miguel, El Salvador, March 1, 1983. El Salvador’s primary-export economic structure in the 20th century concentrated land ownership and income in the hands of a small economic elite. This oligarchy effectively marginalized the rural sector of the population by closing political and social arenas as well as economic, which resulted in high levels of support for guerrilla insurgents in certain departments of the country. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593538825-CA1H88FP0JY02H2PDSPJ/60_20180109.jpg Black & White United States Ambassador Deane Hinton, center, hands an American flag to Roberto D'Aubuisson, President of the Constituent Assembly, in San Salvador, El Salvador, April 1, 1983. In addition to serving as the first leader of conservative political party Alianza Republicana Nacionalista, ARENA, D'Aubuisson was a former official of the Agencia Nacional de Seguridad Salvadoreña, ANSESAL, the intelligence sector of the death squads, and was named responsible as giving the orders for the assassination of Archbishop Óscar Romero on March 24, 1980. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1606748121360-M80N0VQEPVU529K5WSKP/elsalvador_nb_0102_loresmeta.jpg Black & White A television crew from the U.S. network ABC interviews a young fighter from the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, as guerrillas stop commercial traffic along the Pan American Highway in Usulután department, El Salvador, May 1, 1983. Every major paper and wire service had a bureau in El Salvador while international concern maintained the Central American conflicts as hemispheric battles over communist expansion. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593475550-CLHD0GO7K581LERDFRZE/21_20180402.jpg Black & White A television news crew inspects the damaged suspension bridge crossing the Lempa River that was recently bombed by guerrillas in Cuscátlan, El Salvador, January 3, 1984. The 800-foot bridge is the largest in Central America. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593553473-BZZ01KCCCYLJUG1N0M4N/73_20180402.jpg Black & White Leon Alfredo Barahon and his wife María Inés Artiga on the day of their wedding in Colonia Escalón, San Salvador, El Salvador, September 27, 1984. The couple worked for one of the largest landowning families in El Salvador. The Salvadoran armed conflict was at its root a class conflict. The country's high economic disparity had existed since Spanish colonial rule and continued after the peace negotiations concluded in 1992. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593555756-A7853CYGACG536QNWHGT/75_20180402.jpg Black & White At a press conference, a leader of the left-wing labor union coalition Movimiento de Unidad Sindical y Gremial de El Salvador, MUSYGES, displays a headline in the El Mundo daily newspaper reporting threats by the right-wing death squad Éjercito Secreto Anticomunista, ESA, in San Salvador, El Salvador, October 5, 1984. The Salvadoran political elite viewed labor unions as subversive enemies of the state and considered its leaders to be as dangerous as the guerrilla insurgency. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574102623442-3V0RYNOTVS5WLR4EBASY/14_20180402v2+copy.jpg Black & White United States Ambassador Thomas R. Pickering listens to a question during a media press conference at his official residence in San Salvador, El Salvador, November 1, 1983. Pickering arrived in El Salvador in August of 1983 and was charged with guiding the Álvaro Magaña government to presidential elections, resisting attempts from the extreme-right to cripple agrarian reform, and monitoring the military progress of total victory advocated by U.S. military advisors. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593563560-KM38AN5V28W2BUVMC0P1/78_20180109.jpg Black & White Colonel Sigifredo Ochoa Pérez, commander of the counterinsurgency unit Destacamiento Militar 2, points to a map describing FMLN guerrilla movement and infiltration routes at the military headquarters in Sensuntepeque, El Salvador, October 1, 1982. In 2015, the release of CIA documents related to the armed conflict proved Ochoa’s command responsibility in the November 1981 massacre of the civilian population of Santa Cruz in the department of Cabañas. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593567857-UPZ1JFT1SW9FP699D1PP/83_20180109.jpg Black & White A member of the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, stands in front of two burning commercial vehicles on the Pan American Highway in Usulatán, El Salvador, March 1, 1983. In ERP-controlled east El Salvador, guerrillas employed tactics such as burning targeted vehicles on the highway if a commercial strike had been called to show defiance of Salvadoran government control. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593563859-AVEJMPR42I2FLMZDTXGY/78_20180402.jpg Black & White An altar with a statue of Jesus Christ is carried in a religious procession through the streets in Perquín, Morazán department, El Salvador, October 23, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593540188-E95HUFPADJKGQU5NN38T/62_20180402.jpg Black & White A Salvadoran medical doctor examines an army soldier suffering from a head wound at the military hospital in San Salvador, El Salvador, May 15, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593572060-SALKS0QERA8PCE8UNY54/89_20180109.jpg Black & White A member of the Salvadoran guerrilla group Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, moves through the ransacked office of the national telephone company in Jucuapa, El Salvador, February 1, 1983. The guerrilla's clothing is made up of captured pieces of the Salvadoran Armed Forces uniform. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593580458-HGWNVO6I5ZB7R1PKI3X1/T52954_4.jpg Black & White A portrait of a Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, guerrilla fighter as he stands in front of a building occupied during an attack in Cinquera, El Salvador, May 10, 1983. FPL was comprised primarily of union workers, university students, and social Christian groups and was one of five organizations within the guerrilla coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574095621523-U4T7V2HFZZ4VHXN0MZTS/19_20180402v2.jpg Black & White Three local residents play a traditional Salvadoran song on a recorder and two drums in central El Salvador, June 26, 1983. The country was engaged in a twelve-year civil war between successive authoritarian regimes, backed by the United States, and the guerrilla coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN. The conflict would claim over 75,000 lives before peace negotiations concluded in 1992. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593580299-7O8YNY4ZBNCY1HQHBANK/T52954_8.jpg Black & White A local resident stands for a photograph on the outskirts of Cinquera, El Salvador, May 10, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593584392-NVRN28WUW5I4AU7NZTCY/T52954_9.jpg Black & White A tree stands in front of a partially abandoned municipal government building in Cinquera, El Salvador, May 10, 1983. Cinquera was often held by the guerrilla faction Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, with the occasional presence of central government officials. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574095667052-02GF8DQ5GPV0UXGBQYRA/201700507_015_CAP.jpg Black & White Local residents move their belongings before an assault by the Atlacatl Battalion in pursuit of guerrillas from the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, in Tenancingo, El Salvador, September 27, 1983. Residents would then return to their homes and farms after the attack. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574095604970-3SK2PLTW6WDR7BQMTAZU/10v2.jpg Black & White Father Renato Pellachin, an Italian Franciscan priest, left, speaks with leftist guerrilla officials from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, center and right, in La Reina, El Salvador, February 4, 1983. The Catholic Church operating in El Salvador often condemned the increasing state violence and oppression of the population, with some members of the clergy sharing guerrilla sympathies. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574095681858-KQNKDGM6EN6T2D13YFLB/201700507_045_CAP.jpg Black & White Two guerrillas from the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, watch a low-flying Salvadoran military observation plane in Jucuarón, El Salvador, June 19, 1984. FMLN was founded on October 10, 1980 as a coalition of five guerrilla organizations with the primary demands of dissolving the army and paramilitary security forces and establishing effective national agrarian reform. Despite ideological differences between the five organizations, FMLN became the strongest guerrilla army in Latin America in the Cold War period. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574107328015-8P41YVDQATXAT3FO59EJ/03_20180722v2.jpg Black & White In territory held by the guerrilla faction Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, armed guerrillas cross a river near the Salvadoran-Honduran border in Chalatenango department, El Salvador, February 25, 1981. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574095623891-7YH13JBDJTH0URD4YTTA/20_20180402v2.jpg Black & White An old gnarled guanacaste tree grows in a rural town in central El Salvador, June 26, 1983. The country was engaged in a twelve-year civil war between successive authoritarian regimes, backed by the United States, and the guerrilla coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN. The conflict would claim over 75,000 lives before peace negotiations concluded in 1992. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593584013-YLGBLER9EB6QAVYJ1CW7/T92954_7.jpg Black & White A portrait of a guerrilla from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, as he stands in front of a building occupied during an attack in Cinquera, El Salvador, May 10, 1983. Salvadoran guerrilla organizations formed in the early 1970s and experienced broad support, particularly among the rural sectors of the population, as a consequence of increased state repression and exclusion from political participation. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574107654078-N9BTXYXBCP6LAFWB3UD3/11_20180402v2.jpg Black & White Salvadoran soldiers from the Atlacatl Battalion stop during a military operation in pursuit of guerrillas from the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, in San Miguel, El Salvador, September 1, 1983. The Atlacatl Battalion was trained at Ft. Bragg in the United States by U.S. Special Forces as the first rapid response counterinsurgency battalion and was implicated in some of the most infamous human rights violations of the twelve-year armed conflict. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574095683426-Y3F4N3K0GFOZJKLT5NMF/201700507_054_CAP.jpg Black & White A day laborer uses a long blade saw to cut wooden planks on the El Sunza cooperative in Sonsonate, El Salvador, April 10, 1983. Agrarian reform initiated in 1980 in El Salvador was designed by United States advisors, financed by the United States government, and implemented by the Salvadoran military. The reform followed the model previously implemented in the Vietnam War of dividing large pieces of land into cooperatives in an effort to pacify a population considered to be sympathetic to the guerrilla insurgency. However, the model did not attempt to dismantle the landowner oligarchy nor the redistribution of coffee plantations, two critical causes of the armed conflict. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574095646672-LJITNOBNJ3KDBWDYI07L/66v2.jpg Black & White Journalists from western news organizations listen to leftist guerrilla officials from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, as they respond to questions during a press conference in La Palma, El Salvador, February 6, 1983. FPL, as a member of the coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, acquired both military and strategic support from various socialist parties in Vietnam, Nicaragua, Cuba, and the Soviet Union to fund their campaigns. The FMLN and the political organization Frente Democrático Revolucionario, FDR, were recognized as the established insurgency in El Salvador and played an integral role in the 1992 Peace Accords. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574095615205-A0HNQC77RAG81B5GM7WU/15v2.jpg Black & White Men and women line up at a polling station to vote in the presidential and legislative elections in San Salvador, El Salvador, April 29, 1982. Elections in El Salvador were lauded as an example of democratic progress in the country and were supported fervently by the United States, despite restrictions in popular participation and the dominant role of the military in essential policy areas. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574109431481-22YICSS4KIRKHVZ4CR27/9v2.jpg Black & White A U.S. army advisor, left, advises Salvadoran army soldiers during an open air class in San Juan Opico, El Salvador, March 1, 1983. As early as 1950, the United States had provided extensive support for the establishment of a counterintelligence apparatus for the Salvadoran military and police, in addition to direct military funding and assistance. Over the course of the civil war from 1980 to 1992, the United States sent more than $6 billion to the Salvadoran government in economic and military aid. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574109857898-2ZX9FB97OWJX55D41GNB/29_20180402v2.jpg Black & White Civilians listen while a Christian evangelical speaks in Parque La Libertad in San Salvador, El Salvador, March 1, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574109006768-KHNDHVBQGWKGSTUYE5HS/26_20180402v2.jpg Black & White A Salvadoran army soldier, left, receives weapons training on a .50 caliber machine gun from Soldier of Fortune magazine editor and publisher, Robert K. Brown, right, in San Francisco Gotera, El Salvador, February 21, 1984. Brown and his magazine donated weapons training and $750,000 of medical and surgical equipment to Salvadoran army doctors. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574095632492-DVCAJRNOYOVFHKPACAPR/43v2.jpg Black & White Two boys read a newspaper in the Colonia Escalon neighborhood of San Salvador, El Salvador, January 1, 1983. The country was engaged in a twelve-year civil war between successive authoritarian regimes, backed by the United States, and the guerrilla coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN. The conflict would claim over 75,000 lives before peace negotiations concluded in 1992. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574095679125-O9WHNK19DZACNEKIKU81/201700507_027_CAP.jpg Black & White A wounded soldier from the Atlacatl Battalion is evacuated during a military operation pursuing guerrillas from the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, in Tenancingo, El Salvador, September 27, 1983. The Atlacatl Battalion was trained in 1981 by U.S. Special Forces at Fort Bragg, North Carolina as the first of several rapid-response, counter-insurgency battalions during a bloody 12-year civil war starting in 1980. It was implicated in some of the most horrific atrocities during the civil war. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574095650926-DGAONP0P6J4E06GLHLOK/68v2.jpg Black & White A member of the leftist guerrilla group Fuerzas Populares de Liberacion, FPL, walks past a dead Salvadoran army soldier following an overnight ambush near the Guazapa volcano outside of Suchitoto, El Salvador, February 12, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1542593567405-90E9JCLP98ZEQGUGLLNW/82_20180402.jpg Black & White Women line up for medical care at a military clinic in Perquín, Morazán department, El Salvador, October 23, 1983. The Salvadoran government abandoned Perquín and several towns in Morazán department when the territory fell under the control of the FMLN. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574109006643-2J4KP4KFDUZ8BRKPP0N1/56_20180402v2.jpg Black & White United States Secretary of State George Shultz, center, makes an appearance for the media at the Salvadoran Foreign Ministry in San Salvador, El Salvador, January 31, 1984. Secretary Shultz is surrounded by, left to right, Salvadoran Foreign Minister Fidel Chavez Mena, U.S. Ambassador at Large Richard Stone, Salvadoran General Carlos Eugenio Vides Casanova, Salvadoran President Álvaro Alfredo Magaña Borja, U.S. Ambassador Thomas R. Pickering and other Salvadoran and U.S. officials. Considered the “last major battle of the Cold War”, the Central American conflicts drew significant attention from Washington, with officials frequently visiting the region to assess strategies as well as encourage the doctrines of military victory and democracy building. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574095674745-19QYXBA52GLAS6ER7WB5/201700507_023_CAP.jpg Black & White Unidentified men look at one of two corpses in the city morgue in La Libertad, El Salvador, August 10, 1984. Both victims were shot in the face and showed additional signs of bruising. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1574095635578-9PE2JV5Z29KTP4MBFCTB/50_Hv2.jpg Black & White A Salvadoran journalist holding a white flag views an empty Pan American Highway where frequent leftist guerrilla ambushes of army convoys have occurred outside of San Vicente, El Salvador, January 1, 1983. The country was engaged in a twelve-year civil war between successive authoritarian regimes, backed by the United States, and the guerrilla coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN. The conflict would claim over 75,000 lives before peace negotiations concluded in 1992. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/brazil-gold daily 0.75 2020-08-15 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1580240991483-OZPTT2QURQB5589XGM2X/brazil_ct_20_master_web.jpg Brazil: Gold Rush in Serra Pelada An overview shows between 80,000 to 100,000 garimpeiros digging out bags of ore to be carried by hand to the surface of the mine. The Brazilian military government in power at the time agreed to buy all gold found by the garimpeiros for 75% of the London Metal Exchange price. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1580240996997-H4IH8YEQDEI9YMS00R02/brazil_ct_25_master_web.jpg Brazil: Gold Rush in Serra Pelada Garimpeiros were paid the equivalent of $2-$3 per day for digging and carrying ore to the surface, with a bonus if gold was discovered. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1580241009753-W5MUMJNV0BZA2MD29MKR/brazil_ct_45_master_web.jpg Brazil: Gold Rush in Serra Pelada Garimpeiros climbed nearly 400 meters of wooden ladders with 50-75 pounds of weight on their backs to reach the surface. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1580240991852-44SZMJQ034FH1AW4259R/brazil_ct_21_master_web.jpg Brazil: Gold Rush in Serra Pelada The mountain was removed by hand and divided into lots of 2 square meters with around 10 garimpeiros working in a given lot. In the 1980s, the price of gold underwent a steady rise on the world market and people migrated from around Brazil to try their luck in striking gold at the Serra Pelada mine. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1580240980676-Y73FJCBBC4Q6Q645GQIC/brazil_ct_18_master_web.jpg Brazil: Gold Rush in Serra Pelada A given day in the mine was characterized by conflicts between the garimpeiros, as well as larger tensions between prospectors and the Brazilian military government. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1580241006613-I0ONC8EK0MYFFZH4Z4OS/brazil_ct_42_master_web.jpg Brazil: Gold Rush in Serra Pelada Social unrest increased in the region with the presence of an armed guerrilla movement against the military dictatorship in the late 1960s and early 70s, known as the Araguaia Guerrilla War. The gold served as a governmental form of control to counter civil dissent in the region and was seen by the state as a solution to Brazil’s mounting international debts. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1580240978257-Y5VK3U2FRF05KQXQ3ASH/brazil_ct_05_master_web.jpg Brazil: Gold Rush in Serra Pelada A map shows the small plots of the open-air gold mine in Serra Pelada. Plots measured on average 2 square meters. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1580241001203-F2KYBQR0NR7RXX2KR66Q/brazil_ct_37_master_web.jpg Brazil: Gold Rush in Serra Pelada Miners were paid in cruzeiros, the former currency of Brazil, for their labor. The lot owners, known as donos, paid the garimpeiros either a fixed daily wage or offered them a stake in the profits if gold was found. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1580242457341-9S8DTKEW6Q9GJUN875RG/brazil_ct_49_master_web.jpg Brazil: Gold Rush in Serra Pelada Garimpeiros were exposed to dangerously high levels of mercury used in the extraction process and many miners were killed in landslides. The surrounding settlements that emerged from the mine at Serra Pelada were also known to be extremely violent. At the height of the boom, 60-80 murders were recorded on average monthly. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1580241014769-TT0K3VDEX0XYCW4NI8SQ/brazil_ct_50_master_web.jpg Brazil: Gold Rush in Serra Pelada A garimpeiro takes a bath above the open-air mine. Miners were so saturated in sediment they often soaked their clothes at the end of the day to extract flakes of gold from their garments. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1580241005757-YENEYQ2UKU95M7PAT0M9/brazil_ct_41_master_web.jpg Brazil: Gold Rush in Serra Pelada Government engineers measure an owner’s plot. The mine became an intermittent flashpoint of confrontation between workers and the Brazilian authorities, who were directly involved not just in Serra Pelada but in other garimpos located in the Pará state. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1580241002674-TFDLG7G222C4ZXK28CNI/brazil_ct_29_master_web.jpg Brazil: Gold Rush in Serra Pelada Garimpeiros historically relied on environmentally destructive extractive practices, including the use of mercury, which polluted the water and poisoned miners. Many garimpeiros were also killed in landslides. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1580242889727-1SQLOU4VHJ2ZN17D7FT0/brazil_ct_26_master_web.jpg Brazil: Gold Rush in Serra Pelada When garimpeiros extracted more than 1 kilo of gold at a given time, they called it bamburra, which loosely translates to “achieving a great fortune”. The biggest nugget discovered at Serra Pelada weighed 6.8 kilos and was worth $108,000 in 1980, now $335,100 in 2020. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1580241016203-F8QW2V5OX4DK4F6EDJBW/brazil_ct_54_master_web.jpg Brazil: Gold Rush in Serra Pelada Over the years, logging and other forms of deforestation have affected the eastern edge of the Amazon in the Pará state. Badly planned mining explorations in the 1980s, including at Serra Pelada, led to serious environmental consequences such as heavy water contamination from mercury. Conflict between prospectors and Indigenous populations who live around the mines remains a persistent issue in the Amazon region. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1580242871707-XH8PH4NNBV3Z9QZ0V5EU/brazil_ct_19_master_web.jpg Brazil: Gold Rush in Serra Pelada Catastrophic landslides and structural collapses forced Serra Pelada to officially close in 1986. To prevent further exploration the mine was flooded, creating a 140 meter-deep lake. Today the lake is completely polluted with mercury. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/vietnam-edit-03 daily 0.75 2020-07-06 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555202877-XMOMQU5JSR34W25PD6V9/4x5_014_loresmeta.jpg Vietnam Edit 03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555326071-0C76JWNABP8C1E8BL0BW/T98530_TK1_010_loresmeta.jpg Vietnam Edit 03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555626766-WFFB6AW33JWNUNMKYUDF/T110590_038_loresmeta.jpg Vietnam Edit 03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555857718-114NLAUX5LU6BTA92215/T112424_007_loresmeta.jpg Vietnam Edit 03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555710019-LPE98Y6OHRLUKAHP69AW/T110590_50_loresmeta.jpg Vietnam Edit 03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555191589-7LLQ5RC0UOF4ZFZWVXD7/4x5_013_loresmeta.jpg Vietnam Edit 03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555144776-FAZHRJGAPQ50LO7B56EN/4x5_008_loresmeta.jpg Vietnam Edit 03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555894053-WPBGOYXI8L0ICM225WSM/T112424_026_loresmeta.jpg Vietnam Edit 03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555335043-OAC1DDWW2JGG7WAE8PLF/T98530_TK1_011_loresmeta.jpg Vietnam Edit 03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555396264-YPPTKYF5BI3SF3I2E31U/T98530_TK1_037_loresmeta.jpg Vietnam Edit 03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555275082-TAFJMT3YWAEN3YPVH3UI/T98530_TK1_007_loresmeta.jpg Vietnam Edit 03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555691865-KVZD5IVGZDA5MO7BZTRS/T110590_045_loresmeta.jpg Vietnam Edit 03 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https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555538217-5BZ7K3ED1EY4NKYYD7QD/T110590_013_loresmeta.jpg Vietnam Edit 03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555803372-NHUFC9N5ZSFNTW15Q9A5/T110590_093_loresmeta.jpg Vietnam Edit 03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555984360-9A2OZQ1UHFHKWZ6TXTS4/T115186_015_loresmeta.jpg Vietnam Edit 03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555966169-EG4NAXWRDPS1RGN6896N/T115186_005_loresmeta.jpg Vietnam Edit 03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555932208-48S61THZRXYH0HP41SBB/T112424_035_loresmeta.jpg Vietnam Edit 03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593556112368-EBBSJ1TDSUYSOK0ND09A/T115186_035_loresmeta.jpg Vietnam Edit 03 https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/-gudri-mosque-new daily 0.75 2020-08-15 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533996777995-MBTYMXPZHW0ZTKGNHTU8/_84A2011.jpg Gudri Mosque Scaffolding supports the ongoing restoration work at the early twentieth-century Gudri Mosque in Kabul, built upon an earlier structure. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533996776341-MSZOJ4IH26E3KX47E0PW/_84A1974.jpg Gudri Mosque Two laborers pose for a picture during restoration and preservation work of Gudri Mosque in Kabul, Afghanistan. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533996787223-CAZUIUMAA11MS4RZTM4R/3_D6C2873.jpg Gudri Mosque What started out as an architectural project to restore Gudri Mosque soon began involving the students in other disciplines – archaeology, preservation, and urban planning – as they began to probe the underpinnings of the damaged structure and found the remains of an earlier seventeenth-century building, which is rare in Kabul. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533996786250-OCLKINAVWNH3Q4W26QD9/15_D6C2791.jpg Gudri Mosque Once considered men-only professions in Afghanistan, architecture and engineering are attracting more women students at Kabul University and Kabul Polytechnic. Here, female students sketch the old mosque’s entrance and minarets. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533996794080-GM9DO7Q8WI5E3V420DII/18_D6C2668.jpg Gudri Mosque Kabul is faced with overpopulation and stress on the city’s infrastructure. Effective urban planning and preservation of Kabul’s historic districts pose challenges for engineers and architects. Students at Kabul University listen to architect Yasin Hejrat discuss the complexities of preserving the city’s historical sites and Kabul’s breakneck growth. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533996794604-TQ8NXXOZFSKJRSZD2YGA/20_D6C3007.jpg Gudri Mosque A Kabul University professor lectures to students about the restoration of Gudri Mosque. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533996802778-O3AZPXY8O21ZQ06TXAHT/22_D6C3452.jpg Gudri Mosque Students sift through the foundation underpinnings of the damaged mosque searching for artifacts and found the remains of an earlier seventeenth-century building, which is rare in Kabul. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533996803995-CGGN7RSEFL35K8YMKH5W/24_D6C3583.jpg Gudri Mosque Professors at Kabul University are using the Gudri Mosque site to train aspiring students in architecture, historic preservation and urban regeneration. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533996808268-KE87H91EW8MNYTGUQH04/31_L1008389.jpg Gudri Mosque Project Director Abdul Wasay Najimi, left, speaks with Kabul University architecture students on the urgent need for preserving Kabul’s heritage amid the city’s chaotic growth. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/-baburs-garden-new daily 0.75 2020-08-15 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997636928-ZPCVYYF4UNA1IRQXMRY5/1_L1008822.jpg Babur's Garden A panoramic view of Bagh-e Babur, a 217-acre park in Kabul, designed by the first Mughal emperor, Babur, in the 16th-century. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997635958-OG1X6J9PRC1N238XCBH0/3_84A3089.jpg Babur's Garden Emperor Babur was so enamored with his gardens in Kabul that before he died in India, he demanded that his body be taken from Agra for burial in Kabul. Much as Kabulis have done for centuries, families and youth flock to the restored Bagh-e Babur gardens for respite inside the garden walls. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997644676-G1M5T4UFQ5IJJ82IGN8I/5_84A3181.jpg Babur's Garden Youth are among the tens of thousands of visitors who find a reprieve from the noise of Kabul in Bagh-e Babur considered to be among the finest surviving examples of Mughal garden design. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997645880-AMWQEI54OEY2ZW9OMP5Q/7_84A3349.jpg Babur's Garden A large pavilion was built on the upper levels of Bagh-e Babur in the 20th-century by King Nadir Shah and it now serves as an exhibition hall. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997654981-BCGCXZ3DEZMXFX4ZFER5/9_84A3488.jpg Babur's Garden A caravanserai complex was added to Bagh-e Babur in 2004-2005. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997653709-MAZXEODT39PCE0L285E7/11_D6C6894.jpg Babur's Garden An employee sweeps the window ledge inside a gallery and exhibition hall in Bagh-e Babur’s main pavilion. The gallery pictures were taken by Josephine Powell in the 1960’s of Afghanistan’s historic monuments. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997659184-S3UQTKC88LJIOBCY47B0/12_D6C7047.jpg Babur's Garden The front view in Bagh-e Babur of a small white marble mosque built in 1647 by Mughal ruler Shah Jahan. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997665887-SXYYL8MZX010K7724APD/13_L1009513.jpg Babur's Garden The side view in Bagh-e Babur of a small white marble mosque built in 1647 by Mughal ruler Shah Jahan. A group of houses has grown above Babur’s Garden where an old fort called Noon Day Cannon Hill, upper left, still maintains a police security detachment. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997667110-183GAPZK37WFWO3JWWUY/26_L1008751.jpg Babur's Garden An employee walks to an office inside Bagh-e Babur’s large pavilion and exhibition hall. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/-national-museum-of-afghanistan-new daily 0.75 2020-08-15 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534383767930-4PYVM020VL2QMQEO73SM/3_84A1391.jpg National Museum of Afghanistan Schoolchildren cluster around a black marble basin carved with Islamic inscriptions from the late fifteenth century CE. A lotus blossom chiseled on its underside led scholars to believe that the basin originally might have been Buddhist and centuries older. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534383768175-F3LUW49Q60E1Q0F8D8PU/7_84A1488.jpg National Museum of Afghanistan Schoolchildren observe metal and clay artifacts on display at the museum, some dating back to prehistoric times. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534383770094-Q03048WVHLMII845X6QS/11_84A2131.jpg National Museum of Afghanistan At the National Museum of Afghanistan, children file past a clay statue of a sitting Bodhisattva (third to fourth century CE from Tepe Maranjan outside Kabul) that was painstakingly repaired after the Taliban smashed it. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534383770396-J9XCH2XE2N5Z2UQEBMBY/15_84A2266.jpg National Museum of Afghanistan Schoolgirls and boys are guided past exhibits at the National Museum of Afghanistan in Kabul. The museum has become the centerpiece of attempts by Afghan educators to teach the post-war generation about their country’s rich and diverse culture. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534383771673-KVL80PL587S57OPL49IW/16_5D6C4437.jpg National Museum of Afghanistan Schoolchildren gaze at one of the museum’s many rich ethnographic displays, exhibiting the traditional dresses, jewelry, and costumes worn by Afghanistan’s many ethnicities. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534383772728-UHK1JN0FDELZF3ABQ168/22_84A0809.jpg National Museum of Afghanistan Field Director Alejandro Gallego Lopez, from the University of Chicago’s Oriental Institute, leads a team of Afghan and international museum specialists and conservators who are cataloging thousands of artifacts from Hadda destroyed by the Taliban. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534383773675-052KDDC2T0TPU4W8NCWK/24_84A2436.jpg National Museum of Afghanistan Museum Curator Basir Kamjo holds a damaged head of a Buddha from Hadda, in Nangarhar province, eastern Afghanistan. The Gandhara-era statues were destroyed when looters, and later the Taliban, ransacked the museum in 2001. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534383774184-3EHPUYD2GHSP8NYM8OQR/26_84A0093.jpg National Museum of Afghanistan Conservator Ghufran Hanifi stabilizes the coloring of the robes on a clay sculpture excavated from Surkh Kotal in Baghlan https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534383776245-1BAGLWQX681TV7EM07UD/30_D6C3320.jpg National Museum of Afghanistan Two women pass by a sign for the National Museum of Afghanistan located near the visitors’ center in the museum’s garden. The sign is written in Dari, Pashtu, and English. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534383776352-30SVABUGRBASXCXWZMZY/37_D6C3392.jpg National Museum of Afghanistan Two National Police officers open the metal gates to the National Museum of Afghanistan. This entrance, which looks across to Darulaman Palace, was installed in 2013 with funds from the U.S. Embassy, Kabul, to enhance security of vehicles entering the museum grounds. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/-afghan-national-institute-of-music-new daily 0.75 2020-08-15 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997783784-2SOP04YSWRXC6ENJBTQO/3_D6C6353.jpg Afghan National Institute of Music Dr. Ahmad Sarmast (left), Director of the Afghan National Institute of Music, warns students to take security precautions in the wake of a suicide attack in the downtown area of Kabul. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997786035-A6VZ5BZ8FBY4EUEEO4F1/9_D6C5809.jpg Afghan National Institute of Music Afghan classical music often relies on the sitar, a stringed instrument brought to the royal court in Kabul by Indian musicians in the nineteenth century. Here, an Indian husband and wife team are teaching sitar to students. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997789920-SDYMJG5CTLFKML28DO1U/16_D6C4006.jpg Afghan National Institute of Music A British oboe instructor marks a score sheet for an Afghan student during class. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997792901-OUMJYGD9KJMTBV2NQWLJ/19_D6C6196.jpg Afghan National Institute of Music A trumpeter practices his notes in one of the school’s studios. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997795141-R92LF50LTN60XBZBAYEI/20_D6C7700.jpg Afghan National Institute of Music A young woman plays the lute-like rabab, a uniquely Afghan musical instrument, during an instruction class at the Afghan National Institute of Music in Kabul. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997799879-EZXMG7Z5F86NMI8Z1I59/24_D6C7931.jpg Afghan National Institute of Music Afghan girls practice their recorders with an instructor. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997802847-T381NHRPZTEHXEE0T4T4/25_D6C5867.jpg Afghan National Institute of Music A female student practices her bowing technique on a cello under the watchful eye of a Korean-American instructor. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997804896-QBKJBJDSFV78BOKJ8VXY/29_D6C4136.jpg Afghan National Institute of Music A young woman practices the violin. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533997808759-7903F9CNTHPBJFJVZHEU/33_L1009582.jpg Afghan National Institute of Music A seventh-grade pianist poses before resuming her practice at the Afghan National Institute of Music in Kabul. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/noh-gunbad-balkh-province-1 daily 0.75 2020-08-15 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998559437-OMQ75HSF12P5ZX161WDF/3_D6C0554.jpg Noh Gunbad Providing only partial protection from the strong winds and harsh climate of the Balkh plain, a metal structure was installed to cover the site decades before any comprehensive preservation work was undertaken. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998558924-8FAEFX5L4WX3GLP4CSSI/7_D6C1296.jpg Noh Gunbad Noh Gunbad, which means nine domes, dates to the eighth century CE and is Afghanistan’s earliest known Islamic structure. The site remains a popular pilgrimage destination for the adjoining shrine, Haji Piyada, built later. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998570861-66EEEEK92YZ57DQZJ4NV/12_D6C0914.jpg Noh Gunbad The crafted stucco adorning the eighth century CE pillars of Noh Gunbad in Balkh is stabilized by conservation experts to maintain their intricate and unique decorative forms. An international team of experts, led by the Aga Khan Trust for Culture, has conducted groundbreaking preservation work at this site since 2009. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998569289-BFMAW5K89J4LRNTMRQH8/18_D6C1266.jpg Noh Gunbad Daniel Ibled, a member of the project’s restoration team, works to reveal and consolidate the ornamentation at Noh Gunbad in Balkh. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998576876-RO3SY3Z2P9UWM03EFSLE/25_D6C1783.jpg Noh Gunbad A laborer sifts and screens dirt to be used when mixing concrete. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998583788-AGA8UG5UN1QYAIHXNGDV/35_D6C1518.jpg Noh Gunbad Six pillars preserved by a French restoration team stand underneath a protective roof. The dirt floor made up of collapsed tiles from the roof will be un-earthed. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998591108-V0Y93R19I5XZZKBUBD38/41_D6C1008.jpg Noh Gunbad The famed nine domes of Noh Gunbad caved in many centuries ago, burying the mosque’s interior. Here a pillar has been partially un-earthed by a team of international and Afghan archaeologists. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998591752-LXXSTU3D5IQBKDJFEVRU/53_D6C1751.jpg Noh Gunbad A farmer carries fresh forage for his horse near the Old Balkh city wall, a daily chore that has remained the same since Alexander the Great set up camp here in 330 BCE and left the lasting imprint of Greek civilization in central Asia. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998595594-7O9DMLGUQVTSNR3V1LF0/58_D6C1595.jpg Noh Gunbad Women stride along Balkh’s earthen wall, not far from the shrine of Rabaya-e-Balkhi, a famous woman poet of the Samanid dynasty (ninth–tenth century CE) who was killed after her brother discovered her love for a slave. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/-herat-shrines-new daily 0.75 2020-08-15 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1535738804984-ALHQRMQL9VMCWXI2U0UD/1_19_D6C9534.jpg Herat Shrines Women and children leave Shahzada Abdullah in Khuandiz, in the historic center of Herat, once capital of Central Asia. Under the patronage of Queen Gowhar Shad, the daughter-in-law of Tamerlane, Herat was a center of arts and learning in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries CE. Clad in plain-fired brick, the tomb’s exterior is graced with ogee portal arches. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1535738805184-0027LATJ4OT409ZD2Z04/2_15_D6C9447.jpg Herat Shrines Women visit the tomb of Prince Abdullah bin Mu’awiyya inside Shahzada Abdullah mausoleum in Herat, Afghanistan. Built in the fifteenth century CE, the mausoleum features some of the finest Timurid tile-work from medieval Herat. The tomb’s restoration was carried out by the Afghan Cultural Heritage Consulting Organization (ACHCO) with financial support from the U.S. Embassy in Kabul. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1535738806127-V4B24HVHL5GKZS0JZF3A/3_5_D6C9238.jpg Herat Shrines An ornamental vault, known as a muqarnas, inside Shahzada Abdullah’s mausoleum. These intricate, plaster muqarnas are traditional features in Islamic architecture from Iran all the way to Morocco. During restoration, the muqarnas were repaired and repainted using natural ochre pigments, true to the original techniques. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1535738807076-HGMNO9PLE7EFBFFBEDNX/4_6_D6C9306.jpg Herat Shrines An upward view of the exquisitely painted central dome of the interior of Shahzada Abdullah, spanning 12.5 m, the dome underwent structural stabilization to its original brickwork, and plaster and paint were judiciously re-applied to the most fragile areas. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1535738807300-0D233WYVNAN9AN81SAJP/5_13_D6C9418.jpg Herat Shrines Sunlight filters through an original fire-brick lattice screen, illuminating an intricate geometry of lines in the karabandi style, inside Shahzada Abdullah’s mausoleum. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1535738808541-LFTPPMT7Y3DH09PA25N3/6_16_D6C9272.jpg Herat Shrines A man reads from the Koran in a quiet corner of Shahzada Abdullah‘s mausoleum in Herat. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1535738808695-WF2G8DRZ0W1J5OEZZ1QG/7_24_D6C0223.jpg Herat Shrines Project Engineer Habib Noori gazes out from the rooftop of Shahzada Abdullah’s west iwan, whose dome underwent extensive repairs and stabilization during restoration. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1535738810378-G1BHXP5YG7G8UE3PE7H6/8_20_L1009857.jpg Herat Shrines Herati children clean the gravestone of their grandparents, buried outside the Shahzada Abdullah mausoleum in Herat, Afghanistan. Families traditionally clean the gravestones of their ancestors before the Eid al-Adha (Festival of Sacrifice). https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1535738810463-YDFIBAB2FKDVNZUY36K8/9_28_L1009880.jpg Herat Shrines Near Shahzada Abdullah stands another mausoleum, Shahzada Abdul Qasim, which has elements dating back to the pre-Islamic Sasanian era (second to fifth century CE). While the latter shrine is Shiite, Shahzada Abdullah is Sunni. It is common for devotees in Herat to visit both, a reflection of the citizens’ religious tolerance. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/spirit-and-stone daily 0.75 2020-08-28 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1548108377969-HJO5YC941AW076IPNR37/1_84A2011.jpg INTRODUCTION - Gudri Mosque https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1548108376546-7VTIDSVKC6J4ASSMAGE1/1_L1008822.jpg INTRODUCTION - Babur's Garden https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1548125365745-YDZINNMCLO88L2JX0133/3_84A1391.jpg INTRODUCTION - National Museum of Afghanistan https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1548108380791-S0NML7NCQ84NAA757X0S/9_D6C5809.jpg INTRODUCTION - Afghan National Institute of Music https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1548108531167-J5HHR5B8A5AJTRPDZBKB/12_D6C0914.jpg INTRODUCTION - Noh Gunbad, Balkh Province https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1548108536201-BC0P4C04P3QSUUEMTB8O/19_D6C9534.jpg INTRODUCTION - Herat Shirines https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/afghanistan-a-distant-war-new daily 0.75 2020-12-28 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385254269-SQIXLYI0EVPN0T9J2QFS/CH1_009_03_59.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War May 1988: An Afghan soldier hands a flag in solidarity to a departing Soviet soldier in Kabul on the first day of the army’s withdrawal from Afghanistan. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385265209-WQGQVQQ2FDQ8QBB99431/CH1_015_afghanistan_02_117.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War March 1989: Afghan mujahideen move toward the front line during the battle for Jalalabad, in eastern Afghanistan. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385182333-ZCTXE09CKID91I27OKWI/3_CH1_016_afghanistan_02_113-Edit_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War March 1989: Afghan refugees take cover from a bombing attack by the Afghan Air Force during the battle for Jalalabad. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385182250-ILBTSFM0B0U9C18HN2WX/4-1_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War April 1989: Military academy cadets march in Kabul to celebrate the Saur Revolution, the Afghan Communist Party’s seizure of power 11 years earlier. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385183466-9VMJFFMJNCQW6559IVIS/9_CH1_018_afghan_new_03-Edit_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War May 1990: Afghan mujahideen move about the Zhawar training complex controlled by Jalaluddin Haqqani in Khost, Afghanistan. The Zhawar camps along the Afghan-Pakistan border became the main base for Osama bin Laden and his Arab followers. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385273882-MXSJ6HQ51ME04Q2NJFZZ/CH1_019_afghan_39-Edit.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War May 1990: Arab Al Qaeda members and Afghan mujahideen jog at a Zhawar training camp outside of Khost, Afghanistan. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385308595-A6UX765UIP7X0DA8U3L4/CH1_020_24_91119_003-Edit.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War May 1990: Mujahideen commander Jalaluddin Haqqani at a base camp in Khost, Afghanistan. An ethnic Pashtun, Haqqani was an early convert to global jihad. Haqqani befriended Osama bin Laden in the late 1980’s and attracted Arab fighters to his training camps along the Afghan-Pakistan border. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385249767-WCJRCVK114AQEZO9C9EJ/CH1_006_Sec1_khost01-edit.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War April 1991: Afghan mujahideen inspect a Kabul government plane after they seized the Khost garrison. Provincial control gave Afghan mujahideen, Arabs enlisted by Al Qaeda, and Pakistani advisors valuable territory to establish base camps for training and resupply in Afghanistan. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385261993-5NL5NRGOCQQVFXEUIDNV/CH1_012_05_77.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War September 1991: Afghans in the Bagh-e Babur, or Babur’s Garden, perform the attan, a traditional Afghan folk dance. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385183582-FN4T2VADZIHCFJYF450Z/13_CH1_014_afghanistan_02_150-edit_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War March 1992: A young boy sells government-owned newspapers on a Kabul street. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385284326-G5VD1JDO6LIRA0VNIJ8F/CH1_024_06_137.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War April 1992: Afghan Uzbek fighters under the control of Abdul Rashid Dostum fire on Hizb-i-Islami forces of Gulbuddin Hekmatyar in the southwest part of Kabul, during the mujahideen seizure of the city. The takeover of Kabul became a battle between mujahideen groups, divided along ethnic and geographic regions, attempting to seize control of government ministries. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385294287-NEAGHW6GTRU3KVB1EPWS/CH2_004_08_107.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War March 1993: A Kabul family flees its home during factional fighting between President Rabbani’s government forces and opposition Hizb-i-Islami and Hezb-I-Wahdat fighters in western Kabul. The fighting marked a continuation of an operation in which hundreds of unarmed Hazaras were killed. The dispute for control of western Kabul involved Sunni militias against the Shia Hezb-I-Wahdat. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385188244-JJ3Z3J2N63KAS5XGB9S4/21_15_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War March 1994: Boys working with government militiamen fill water buckets from a hand pump on Jade Maiwand, Kabul’s former business district and a front line between factional groups. Food, water and fuel were retrieved during short-lived periods of peace. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385330188-9WB43RRN1NREGBOT09FO/CH3_EXTRA_003_taliban02-Edit.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War October 1996: A Taliban mullah speaks to a crowd gathered in central Kabul after Taliban forces took control from the Rabbani government. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385305292-WH6QND1EK3JLQ5TL0GG9/CH3_002_afghanistan_02_154-Edit-Edit.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War September 1996: Taliban soldiers fire a rocket at retreating forces of the Northern Alliance army north of Kabul. The capital fell to the Taliban on September 27, 1996. The Kabul government’s defenses collapsed with little resistance to the Taliban advance. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385186168-7EXMPNJ9CL3JB0OKPFJD/19_CH2_007_additionals13-edit_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War October 1996: A widow of an Afghan mujahideen fighter seeks refuge with her children in an unheated apartment in Kabul. The women’s husband was killed while fighting the Taliban. Kabul has between 30,000 and 50,000 war widows with little means of support and their situation became more precarious once the Taliban took over in September 1996. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385188417-UPNCLC47XJNQ1SX5EF65/30_19_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War May 1997: A Taliban soldier walks away from where his comrade was shot down in Mazar-I-Sharif. A recent power sharing agreement with Uzbek and Hazara militias and the Taliban broke down after 36-hours. The Taliban were unaware that the Uzbeks and Hazaras had drawn them into a trap. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385190767-36K1Y6KT08BPNL1YM2GB/31_CH3_007_afghanistan_02_40-Edit_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War May 1997: A Taliban soldier fires a rocket-propelled grenade into a doorway where a local Uzbek militiaman had opened fire on a column of Taliban fighters. After two days of fighting, local militiamen had killed over 800 Taliban. Revenge from the Taliban came within a year. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385324951-67NY0CZ9KJ1VVELAHSN5/CH3_014_14_003_1.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War November 2001: An Afghan shepherd in Chowkar Karez, Kandahar province, shouts to his children to lead their flock of goats over to him. He stands by a wall bombed by U.S. and French aircraft. The death toll was nearly 25 civilians, although local residents claim Al Qaeda or Taliban were not present during the attacks. The U.S. Army called the town a military target occupied by one of the groups. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385321728-4QESKVW4KLL6XV0U6CSN/CH3_016_15_P03.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War December 2001: Pakistani Taliban captured outside of Kabul while fighting Northern Alliance troops. All four were from Pakistan’s Punjab province, trained at a local religious center, and recruited by Jaish-i-Mohammed, a militant Islamic group associated with Osama bin Laden. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385348980-O5X760KLU2L1FUPGM0MC/CH4_011_19_0901_3139.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War March 2009: Afghan National Police stand at a guard post in Qarabagh, Ghazni province. The Taliban controlled more than 40 of the 464 villages in Qarabagh district. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385190997-G12ADFWZG2KVHDLLCDSC/41_29_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War August 2006: Three wounded U.S. Army soldiers from the 10th Mountain Division await evacuation by helicopter from Kamdesh, Nuristan province. They were ambushed and suffered wounds to their eyes and foreheads. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385192646-Q2P46MX5KPA82X69V1MW/49_31_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War A U.S. soldier shakes the hand of an Afghan youth outside the town of Jalrez in Wardak province. The hilltop overlooking apple and almond orchards had fighting trenches, left of the soldier, built by Afghan mujahideen 25 years ago in their fight against Soviet forces. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385193873-FHESPZPVQ85QI22XFI9S/51_CH4_009_IMG_7161_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War August 2009: U.S. Marines investigate possible bomb making ingredients at a farmer’s home in Khan Neshin, Helmand province. The team concluded the fertilizer was for agricultural use. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385193830-L8GQFL9JLZ50MSVV4KDY/52_34_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War August 2009: U.S. Marines from the 2nd Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion hold a briefing after a patrol in Khan Neshin, Helmand province. Taliban fighters, forced to flee by the influx of 4,000 Marines into the province, had controlled southern Helmand for nearly four years. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385192690-16T2ZJUXZX5UGMKMJ3AI/50_CH4_EXTRA_015_IMG_7059_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War August 2009: An Afghan farmer stands outside his home as a U.S. Marine patrol walk past in Khan Neshin, Helmand province. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385195668-RCIGRNA3B7ZNF8VOJX7Y/53_CH4_020_bfc9_8970_949-Edit_ICP.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War September 2009: A valley in the Hindu Kush mountains in Kunar province, viewed from a U.S. Army helicopter. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385238978-PLYBBKBT11647IEVXTZA/20130515_kbl_30.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War May 2013: A policeman stops traffic as schoolgirls cross a main roadway in western Kabul. Female literacy rate in Kabul is 37%, the highest in the country. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385195627-GSG4M8AEVCRAY29PDFL3/63_ch4_21.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War May 2013: A U.S. Army soldier at Bagram Air Base sits on top of a Mine-Resistant All-Terrain Vehicle, MRAP, looking for any loose ammunition before the vehicle is shipped back to the United States as part of the withdrawal of U.S. forces from Afghanistan. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385334690-QG2G2ZHXK9WXGA6SXU57/CH4_EXTRA_044_84A9163.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War May 2013: A contingent of American troops concludes their tour in Afghanistan and prepare to fly home from Bagram Air Base. Others arrive, wearing their helmets. With the Western military presence winding down in the months before the December 2014 withdrawal deadline, the United States continues to provide the largest contributions of men, women, and assistance. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534385242479-VYB8RZRLMRYZVZE4HF6K/20130516_kbl_01.jpg Afghanistan: A Distant War May 2013: Car and truck traffic back up near the Pul-e-Sokhta bridge in western Kabul. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/la-vice-squad daily 0.75 2021-03-05 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998899950-8T782AHBO80B11MKA70B/1E2A6850.jpg Vice in Los Angeles May 16, 2017: Officers of the Los Angeles Police Department's Vice Squad confront three women in the southeast area of Los Angeles, California, issuing them warnings for loitering for the purposes of prostitution - a municipal code violation. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998904676-Z67VYKTWT1D3XEE9GDS7/1E2A7288.jpg Vice in Los Angeles May 17, 2017: Officers of the Los Angeles Police Department's Vice Squad arrest a 17-year old woman in the south east area of Los Angeles, California for soliciting an undercover police officer for the purpose of prostitution. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998904721-GB4P27MXLPFBCBHYA94W/1E2A7305.jpg Vice in Los Angeles May 17, 2017: Officers of the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad arrest a 17-year old woman in the southeast area of Los Angeles, California for soliciting an undercover police officer for the purpose of prostitution. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998909958-0BQPFPTBFSM7GF6C95AQ/1E2A7435.jpg Vice in Los Angeles May 17, 2017: Officers of the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad transport a 17-year old woman to a state agency for minors following her arrest in the southeast area of Los Angeles, California. The under-age woman was arrested for soliciting an undercover police officer for the purpose of prostitution. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998914418-FKTDPV2IWSOF7WSWUZJE/1E2A7457.jpg Vice in Los Angeles May 17, 2017: An officer of the Los Angeles Police Department fingerprints a 17-year old woman following her arrest in the southeast area of Los Angeles, California for soliciting an undercover police officer for the purpose of prostitution. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998917052-2LM01T9G7AOK4JKDHZXU/1E2A7578.jpg Vice in Los Angeles May 18, 2017: Officers of the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad arrest a woman in the southeast area of Los Angeles, California for soliciting an undercover police officer for the purpose of prostitution. On this morning, thirteen women were arrested in 30 minutes, starting at 5:35am, along Figueroa Street - a renowned thoroughfare for prostitution. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998921490-54RT8DX6W3J3DR1UBFIG/1E2A7661.jpg Vice in Los Angeles May 18, 2017: Officers of the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad arrest a woman in the southeast area of Los Angeles, California for soliciting an undercover police officer for the purpose of prostitution. On this morning, thirteen women were arrested in 30 minutes, starting at 5:35am, along Figueroa Street - a renowned thoroughfare for prostitution. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998924073-KM7RIFDTJK1HXT8KGMAY/1E2A7765.jpg Vice in Los Angeles May 18, 2017: Sgt Scott Carty, center, an officer with the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad, arrests three women in the southeast area of Los Angeles, California for soliciting undercover police officers for the purpose of prostitution. On this morning, thirteen women were arrested in 30 minutes, starting at 5:35am, along Figueroa Street - a renowned thoroughfare for prostitution. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534384052582-G12D5ORMZMOBG6EP4UVX/1E2A7903.jpg Vice in Los Angeles May 18, 2017: Officers of the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad arrest three women in the southeast area of Los Angeles, California for soliciting undercover police officers for the purpose of prostitution, a misdemeanor charge. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1534384013821-B0UB5GY70QFZ5581Z9J0/1E2A7947.jpg Vice in Los Angeles May 18, 2017: Sgt Scott Carty, left, an officer with the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad, escorts 13 women arrested earlier in the day to a holding cell at the South East division's police headquarters in Los Angeles, California. The women were arrested for soliciting undercover police officers for the purpose of prostitution, a misdemeanor charge. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998934936-CZBR8U7XM68UCTDPYFLC/1E2A8371.jpg Vice in Los Angeles May 18, 2017: Officers of the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad prepare thirteen women for transportation after being arrested for prostitution in the southeast area of Los Angeles, California. The women were arrested for soliciting undercover police officers for the purpose of prostitution. All thirteen women were arrested in a span of 30 minutes starting at 5:35am along Figueroa Street, a renowned thoroughfare for prostitution https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998943139-0KVREHQA6OLHU6EBG50W/1E2A8384.jpg Vice in Los Angeles May 18, 2017: Officers of the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad direct women arrested for prostitution in the southeast area of Los Angeles, California into a van. The women were arrested for soliciting undercover police officers for the purpose of prostitution. All thirteen women were arrested in 30 minutes starting at 5:35am along Figueroa Street, a renowned thoroughfare for prostitution. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998951450-QA1M4E24U5579PKMJP9L/1E2A9089-editv2.jpg Vice in Los Angeles May 22, 2017: A woman arrested for prostitution, center top, speaks to an officer from the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad in the southern area of Los Angeles, California. The woman was arrested for soliciting an undercover police officer for the purpose of prostitution, a misdemeanor charge. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998957909-U6UZKWICLCR48WUBI3Q2/1E2A9176.jpg Vice in Los Angeles May 22, 2017: An officer of the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad, left, speaks to an arrested woman, right, in a police holding cell in the southern area of Los Angeles, California. The women seen inside the holding cell were arrested for soliciting undercover police officers for the purpose of prostitution, a misdemeanor charge. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998967439-DSY1IK938UOPC8YKJZHH/L1003745.jpg Vice in Los Angeles May 16, 2017: Officers of the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad arrest a woman in the southeast area of Los Angeles, California for soliciting an undercover police officer for the purpose of prostitution, a misdemeanor charge. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998981830-P90QKLMM1AM9JUCHBZFR/L1003849.jpg Vice in Los Angeles May 16, 2017: An officer of the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad, right, monitors a 17-year old woman before she's transported to a state agency for minors following her arrest in the south east area of Los Angeles, California. The under-age woman was arrested for soliciting an undercover police officer for the purpose of prostitution, a misdemeanor charge. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533998991167-5ES7FJZHUWUVQTPHE1GW/L1004049-editv2+copy.jpg Vice in Los Angeles May 22, 2017: A woman arrested for prostitution speaks to officers from the Los Angeles Police Department's vice squad in the southern area of Los Angeles, California. She was arrested for soliciting an undercover police officer for the purpose of prostitution. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/survivors-trafficking daily 0.75 2021-03-05 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533999085861-UZG9LU6TSY0M9M6IJ6H0/5_Candise+Walker.jpg Survivors of Human Trafficking Candise Walker sits in the Lynn Commons Park in Lynn, Massachusetts in June 2016. Candise was sexually abused by her female babysitter when she was 5-years and raped by her mother’s drug dealer when she was 12-years as payment for her mother’s dose of crack cocaine. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533999070870-F9PGZHBLF65EVI0U5KAP/1_Catherine+Mossman.jpg Survivors of Human Trafficking Catherine Ann Wilson stands outside her home on Sebago Lake, Maine on August 26, 2017 . Catherine is a sex trafficking survivor, now an anti-trafficking advocate and the founder-director of stoptraffickingUS.org. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533999070911-OYM0HWEBU74WX7K1BC2Y/2_Cathie+Geren.jpg Survivors of Human Trafficking Catherine Geren became involved with a trafficker through her heroin addict boyfriend when she was 17 years. Now, 29, she has been out of “the life” for nearly three years, is enrolled in college and has a 7-month old baby. August 26, 2017. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533999076526-IGI2FOWVSK48AIJZXE8U/3_Tricia+Grant.jpg Survivors of Human Trafficking Tricia Grant-Gregoire was trafficked when she was 15 years and had a one-year old child while living in Lewiston, Maine. Her two traffickers threatened to have her child taken away by social services if she revealed what they were doing with her. She is now an anti-trafficking advocate in Lewiston, Maine. August 26, 2017. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533999077740-SK3O8HD75QHEFD7G7XA7/4_Jasmine+Marino.jpg Survivors of Human Trafficking Jasmine Marino stands outside her home in Saugus, Massachusetts December 2016. She’s 5-months pregnant and delivered a baby girl in February 2017. The father is her former husband; they have since remarried. Jasmine published the diary she secretly kept while being trafficked over a 6-year period, The Diary of Jasmine Grace. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533999094496-KUL05IYB2NK11HITJQ70/7_Megan+McCarthy.jpg Survivors of Human Trafficking Megan McCarthy stands outside the University of Vermont Medical Center November 24, 2016 in Burlington, Vermont where she had a sonogram to determine the health of her baby girl delivered March 2017. Megan was trafficked from Vermont to Connecticut by a man who once supplied heroin to her and eventually became her pimp. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1533999085720-E541ZXRA7JUV0XBB5R01/6_Catherine+Mossman.jpg Survivors of Human Trafficking Catherine Ann Wilson stands in front of a friend’s apartment in Biddeford, Maine in July 2016 where she ran away to 36-years ago from her home in Florida. Once inside, she was raped and trafficked by her friend’s pimp whom she hadn’t been told about and who threatened her life if she tried to escape. She did so one-year later. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/home-2 daily 0.75 2020-08-13 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/56cb3cba59827e93fe59b7ff/1456937126692-IN2XXNF0H65F023MWZIE/image-asset.jpeg Five Star Homes https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/56cb3cba59827e93fe59b7ff/1456937093367-KZFXOYMZOMSAJU9MPSEO/image-asset.jpeg Five Star Homes https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/56cb3cba59827e93fe59b7ff/1456937109909-T0NRUBU5L1NZWH0G78CA/image-asset.jpeg Five Star Homes https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/56cb3cba59827e93fe59b7ff/1456938305372-FL5CYSYX2HKUJ16I0JPI/header-home-JessieWebster_Treehouse_25.jpg Five Star Homes https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/elsal-introduction daily 0.75 2021-06-01 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622569563607-FL6FHC5L2VCTBSEOR1DV/elsalvador_nb_0063_web.jpg INTRODUCTION - Black & White Two guerrillas from the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, watch a low-flying Salvadoran military observation plane in Jucuarán, El Salvador, June 19, 1984. The FMLN was founded on October 10, 1980 as a coalition of five Salvadoran guerrilla organizations with the primary demands of dissolving the army and paramilitary security forces and establishing effective national agrarian reform. Despite ideological differences between the five organizations, the FMLN became the strongest guerrilla army in Latin America during the Cold War. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1609697741301-K64U61LYMI8AJ3UO76Q5/elsalvador_ct_0169_web.jpg INTRODUCTION - Color Laborers repair a road for a work-for-pay-and-food construction program sponsored by the United States Agency for International Development, USAID, in San Vicente, El Salvador, April 1, 1983. USAID efforts in El Salvador were dramatically shaped by U.S. geopolitical concerns during the Cold War. Social and economic programs served as both humanitarian relief and a counterinsurgency strategy of pacification that was refined from its previous employment during the Vietnam War. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/elsalcolor daily 0.75 2021-01-16 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752430281-WY897V2TGO8FFOA38MCO/elsalvador_ct_0241_web.jpg + El Salvador Color Two members of the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, pose for a picture near Santa Anita, Chalatenango department, El Salvador, February 23, 1981. Salvadoran women were present in all levels of leadership in guerrilla organizations, constituting their significant incorporation into the political struggle. An estimated 30% of the full force of the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, was comprised of women. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752437078-YY07OIYYKNTXEVQTL4DL/elsalvador_ct_0161_web.jpg + El Salvador Color Salvadoran army soldiers from the Atlacatl Battalion cross a river during a military operation in pursuit of guerrillas from the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, in San Miguel department, El Salvador, August 23, 1983. Rapid reaction battalions were trained in counterinsurgency tactics to combat guerrilla warfare and were designed and funded by the United States military. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752456333-56VCUP9YQ4U5UKWOXESN/elsalvador_ct_0180_web.jpg + El Salvador Color United States Secretary of State George Shultz makes a statement to the media upon arrival at the military airport in Ilopango, El Salvador, January 31, 1984. Shultz was met by Salvadoran Foreign Minister Fidel Chavez Mena, center right. Considered the "last major battle of the Cold War", the Central American conflicts drew significant attention from Washington, with officials frequently visiting the region to assess strategies as well as encourage the doctrines of military victory and democracy building. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752463384-P659JOBKUT7R4MV4QQL9/elsalvador_ct_0169_web.jpg + El Salvador Color Laborers repair a road for a work-for-pay-and-food construction program sponsored by the United States Agency for International Development, USAID, in San Vicente, El Salvador, April 1, 1983. USAID efforts in El Salvador were dramatically shaped by U.S. geopolitical concerns during the Cold War. Social and economic programs served as both humanitarian relief and a counterinsurgency strategy of pacification that was refined from its previous employment during the Vietnam War. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752567853-L3P3LOKM23GPQ8O0I1KJ/elsalvador_ct_0124_web.jpg + El Salvador Color Lieutenant Colonel Domingo Monterrosa, right, speaks with one of his junior officers, left, as soldiers from the Atlacatl Battalion pursue guerrillas from the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, in San Miguel department, El Salvador, August 23, 1983. Monterrosa trained at the School of the Americas and headed the controversial Atlacatl Battalion, one of the rapid reaction counterinsurgency battalions coordinated and funded by the United States. Monterrosa was killed in a helicopter explosion along with 13 other army soldiers while they were retrieving a booby trapped FMLN radio transmitter in Joateca, Morazán department on October 24, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752568994-PRGQSMSBINHVMISWR7G5/elsalvador_ct_0071_web.jpg + El Salvador Color Two armed guerrillas from the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, watch for oncoming traffic as vehicles burn in the background during a transportation strike along the Pan American Highway in the eastern department of Usulután, El Salvador on March 1, 1983. The Pan American Highway in El Salvador was a contentious site for guerrilla attacks and army retaliation throughout the armed conflict. The guerrillas attacked infrastructure and commerce in campaigns of economic sabotage, further testing military units and disrupting the daily life of civilians. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752589478-961KR260W7D43M9P2V82/elsalvador_ct_0103_web.jpg + El Salvador Color Residents look at the body of an executed man left in a neighborhood on the outskirts of the capital, San Salvador, El Salvador, May 1, 1983. The twelve-year armed conflict would claim over 75,000 lives before peace negotiations concluded in 1992. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752586161-6GBF2N97TEHMBQE3HOL9/elsalvador_ct_0121_web.jpg + El Salvador Color Salvadoran Minister of Defense General Carlos Eugenio Vides Casanova, left, toasts U.S. Army Colonel John D. Waghelstein, right, as deputy chief of mission at the U.S. Embassy in El Salvador Kenneth W. Bleakley, center, oversees a ceremony honoring Col. Waghelstein prior to his departure from the country, San Salvador, El Salvador, June 1, 1983. In 2002, General Vides Casanova was convicted in the United States by his command responsibility over Salvadoran security forces for acts of torture and extrajudicial killings carried out during the civil war. He was deported in 2015 to El Salvador from the U.S. where he had resided as a legal permanent resident since 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752598416-CEC6GG39D0CR5TWZQNAP/elsalvador_ct_0152_web.jpg + El Salvador Color View of weapons, explosives, medical supplies and pieces of guerrilla propaganda found by government security forces in a Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, safe house in San Salvador, El Salvador, September 1, 1983. FPL, as a member of the coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front, FMLN, acquired arms and strategic support from socialist parties in Vietnam, Nicaragua, Cuba, and the Soviet Union to fund their campaigns. The FMLN and their political counterpart the Frente Democrático Revolucionario, FDR, were recognized as the established insurgency in El Salvador and played an integral role in the 1992 peace accords. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752604884-UTG880FNNNTVEY0K60SJ/elsalvador_ct_0127_web.jpg + El Salvador Color Salvadoran soldiers from the Atlacatl Battalion wake in the early morning in fog-enveloped hills before moving into position against armed guerrillas from the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, in San Miguel department, El Salvador, August 23, 1983. The Atlacatl Battalion was trained at Ft. Bragg in the United States by U.S. Special Forces as the first Salvadoran rapid response counterinsurgency battalion and was implicated in some of the most infamous human rights violations of the twelve-year armed conflict. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752609625-YANKKR3NFZSCT25EJKFJ/elsalvador_ct_0263_web.jpg + El Salvador Color Journalists interview local residents as they move their belongings before an assault by the Atlacatl Battalion in pursuit of guerrillas from the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, in Tenancingo, El Salvador, September 27, 1983. During the war, Tenancingo was continually under siege by both the military and guerrilla forces, and many residents would eventually return to their homes and farms after the fighting ceased. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752618371-B3ZC3SETFRR692DSHOLO/elsalvador_ct_0142_web.jpg + El Salvador Color A guerrilla from the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, stands on the street as black smoke rises during combat with government security forces in San Miguel, El Salvador, September 1, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752621098-XQN1U6X1ZASDO89U4NN0/elsalvador_ct_0153_web.jpg + El Salvador Color A member of the guerrilla organization Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, speaks to the media after he was captured by Salvadoran security forces near a FPL safe house containing weapons, explosives, medical supplies and pieces of guerrilla propaganda in San Salvador, El Salvador, September 1, 1983. FPL was comprised primarily of union workers, university students, and social Christian groups and was one of five organizations within the guerrilla coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752621597-UTO5OX4ZYJHESK6AGE11/elsalvador_ct_0206_web.jpg + El Salvador Color United States Navy Lieutenant Commander Albert Schaufelberger, 34 years, speaks to the media while visiting the Salvadoran naval base in La Unión, El Salvador, May 18, 1983. Schaufelberger was assassinated days later near the Central American University in San Salvador, El Salvador on May 25, 1983. Schaufelberger was the senior U.S. Naval representative and security chief for the 55 U.S. Military Advisors in the country. He was the first U.S. serviceman killed in the twelve-year armed conflict. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752635448-ECOT98MAF9I9JBIBQ7FK/elsalvador_ct_0054_web.jpg + El Salvador Color Father Renato Pellachin, an Italian Franciscan priest, left, speaks with leftist guerrilla officials from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, center and right, in La Reina, El Salvador, February 4, 1983. During the twelve-year civil war, the Catholic Church in El Salvador often condemned the violence and oppression perpetrated by the authoritarian regime, with some members of the clergy sharing guerrilla sympathies. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752637323-VCRTXPZ2QVQ833GCOVM0/elsalvador_ct_0260_web.jpg + El Salvador Color United Nations Ambassador Jeane Kirkpatrick (1926-2006) arrives in El Salvador during a ten-day tour of Central America and is escorted by U.S. Ambassador to El Salvador Deane Hinton, right, for a series of meetings in San Salvador, El Salvador, February 9, 1983. After returning to Washington, she recommended an immediate increase in military aid for El Salvador and rejected any dialogue between the Salvadoran government and the guerrillas. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752655183-TS8GQVQU2TX1YUMSB33H/elsalvador_ct_0232_web.jpg + El Salvador Color Family members follow a hearse carrying the body of a civilian found murdered on the side of a road on the outskirts of San Salvador, El Salvador, June 1, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752668798-AMKEI41PRXRKWKC36HLP/elsalvador_ct_0066_web.jpg + El Salvador Color Three armed guerrillas from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, stand beside the body of a dead army soldier along a highway near Suchitoto, Cuscatlán department, El Salvador, February 12, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752674050-VVB3VX68YPYPQVMC0FCD/elsalvador_ct_0051_web.jpg + El Salvador Color Guerrillas from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, address a crowd in front of a political banner for the coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, during a rally in La Palma, El Salvador, February 6, 1983. The group drew its name from Salvadoran communist revolutionary Agustín Farabundo Martí who led the 1932 peasant revolt known as La Matanza. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752678973-PO8WWJWUM3RG0IUGCF25/elsalvador_ct_0262_web.jpg + El Salvador Color International media crowd United States Ambassador at Large to Central America Richard Stone as he prepares to depart at Ilopango Airport, San Salvador, El Salvador, August 1, 1983. Stone was facilitating preliminary peace talks between the leftist political and guerrilla coalition FDR-FMLN and the Salvadoran government. Negotiations between the groups were ongoing throughout the twelve-year civil war. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752712464-79NH0NYI4ZVKYBES14EF/elsalvador_ct_0052_web.jpg + El Salvador Color Leaders from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, address guerrilla members and the public during a rally in La Palma, El Salvador, February 6, 1983. The FPL formed in April 1970 and was one of the most active guerrilla forces both before and during El Salvador’s twelve-year civil war. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752718788-L4IUWEP8BWFJ3EVYUU8Q/elsalvador_ct_0053_web.jpg + El Salvador Color Guerrillas from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, address a crowd in front of a political banner for the coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, during a rally in La Palma, El Salvador, February 6, 1983. The FPL joined the FMLN on October 10, 1980 with the collective strategy and demands of dissolving the army and paramilitary security forces and establishing effective national agrarian reform. Despite ideological differences between the five organizations, the FMLN became the strongest guerrilla army in Latin America in the Cold War period. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752733790-I3N3B3LAYB2OMWYEJJ4I/elsalvador_ct_0085_web.jpg + El Salvador Color An armed guerrilla from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, stops for a picture before moving to his base below the Guazapa volcano near Suchitoto, El Salvador, June 1, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752735315-6JKQO4Q5WTDSH4M7DI0A/elsalvador_ct_0086_web.jpg + El Salvador Color An armed guerrilla from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, stops for a picture before moving to his base below the Guazapa volcano near Suchitoto, El Salvador, June 1, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610755395280-FEK1LDVQ2PG7MXJX1WU9/elsalvador_ct_0192_web.jpg + El Salvador Color One of 55 United States Army trainers, attached to the U.S. Military Group in El Salvador, right, conducts target practice training to his Salvadoran charges in San Miguel department, El Salvador, August 1, 1984. With the escalation of U.S. military aid in 1981, 55 military advisors, or the Mobile Training Team, MTT, arrived in El Salvador and were stationed at bases around the country. Referred to as “trainers” to discourage comparisons with U.S. advisors during the Vietnam War, the trainers in El Salvador worked to strengthen the military capacity of the Salvadoran Armed Forces, as well as enforce the preferred military strategy of the war’s largest funder, the United States government. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610755399181-0WCNEZIOK1OVZNHD9RMY/elsalvador_ct_0193_web.jpg + El Salvador Color United States Staff Sergeant Clark Hjelseth, attached to the U.S. Military Group in El Salvador, right, shows a Salvadoran soldier a grouping of bullets during target practice training with Salvadoran army soldiers in San Miguel department, El Salvador, August 1, 1984. With the escalation of U.S. military aid in 1981, 55 military advisors, or the Mobile Training Team, MTT, arrived in El Salvador and were stationed at bases around the country. Regulations on the capacities and number of advisors stationed were largely ignored or circumvented by the Reagan administration. Special training camps were created in neighboring Honduras for Salvadoran military units to avoid restrictions on the country’s advisors limit. Additional advisors were deployed and covertly financed through the CIA under the guise of “intelligence operations”. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752750814-STDFCC5RZTTBD990MT46/elsalvador_ct_0148_web.jpg + El Salvador Color Salvadoran soldiers with the Guardia Nacional and Policía Nacional take cover during an attack by guerrillas from the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, in San Miguel, El Salvador, September 1, 1983. Both the Guardia Nacional and the Policía Nacional, along with the Policía de Hacienda, were dissolved and demobilized as a part of the Chapultepec Peace Accords in 1992 for grave human rights violations committed before and during the twelve-year civil war. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610753269654-3L376OAZTO9ND512S2Q2/elsalvador_ct_0099_web.jpg + El Salvador Color Salvadoran guerrillas from the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, fire at government security forces during a street battle in Santa Rosa de Lima, eastern El Salvador, May 1, 1983. The ERP were considered the most militarily powerful of the guerrilla factions that constituted the coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752765215-CV1YN301WBTWBH0BCMBN/elsalvador_ct_0006_web.jpg + El Salvador Color A captured member, second right, of the paramilitary militia Organización Democrática Nacionalista, ORDEN, stands with his family behind a table of weapons following the takeover of their village by leftist guerrillas from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, in San Antonio de la Cruz, El Salvador, February 20, 1981. ORDEN, along with the Agencia Nacional de Seguridad Salvadoreña, ANSESAL, widely considered to be the origin of the death squads, were employed by the military to infiltrate and terrorize rural populations considered subversive to the regime. Although ORDEN was nominally disbanded in 1979, many of its members were folded into civil defense units who continued to use extrajudicial violence and torture against civilians. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752812412-9Y8Z62FWGICSYO6D3DDI/elsalvador_ct_0233_web.jpg + El Salvador Color A Salvadoran soldier, left, and a member of a local civil defense militia, right, take cover in a neighborhood cemetery during a battle with guerrillas from the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, in San Salvador, El Salvador, January 1, 1982. Civil defense units in El Salvador operated under military command and were complicit along with the Salvadoran National Guard in indiscriminate attacks on peasant cooperatives and villages suspected of subversive sympathies. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610753892543-MVSDTKL7CCZYOXUOZ0OR/elsalvador_ct_0189_web.jpg + El Salvador Color Unidentified men look at one of two corpses in the city morgue, La Libertad, El Salvador, August 10, 1984. Both victims were shot in the face and showed additional signs of bruising. The twelve-year armed conflict would claim over 75,000 lives before peace negotiations concluded in 1992. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1610752808586-E49TW2YTO43UVDECQETI/elsalvador_ct_0044_web.jpg + El Salvador Color A Salvadoran army door gunner watches the terrain below while flying in a United States-made Bell UH-1 helicopter gunship over the Rio Lempa region in northern El Salvador, January 1, 1983. As early as 1950, the United States provided extensive support in the establishment of a counterintelligence apparatus for the Salvadoran military and police forces, in addition to direct military funding and assistance. Over the course of the civil war from 1980-1992, the United States sent more than $6 billion to the Salvadoran government in economic and military aid. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/guatemala-intro daily 0.75 2021-01-03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1609699037044-PUIPQI3E5F1PXXYBJA9U/15+2+copy_loresmeta.jpg INTRODUCTION - Black & White Civilians watch as President Efraín Rios Montt arrives for a ceremony at the Presidential Palace in Guatemala City, Guatemala, October 20, 1982. Rios Montt’s brief presidency (March 1982-August 1983), in which he installed a military regime, dissolved the congress, and suspended the constitution, is considered to be the most violent period of the conflict. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1609700078360-H4D1KG6KVR34Y850C42O/T37404T1_9_web.jpg INTRODUCTION - Color Local Civil Defense Patrol members patrol along a mountain road in rural Huehuetenango, Guatemala on September 1, 1982. The Civil Defense Patrols effectively institutionalized military power at the local level by infiltrating and dissolving community loyalties and reorienting them to serve counterinsurgency efforts. They served a critical role in the systemic violence, inequality, and militarization of the domestic armed conflict. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/elsalblackwhite daily 0.75 2021-06-01 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217341959-G80SEF7O04WHDLFQ776G/elsalvador_nb_0020_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White The Atlacatl Battalion commander, Lieutenant Colonel Domingo Monterrosa, hands a new soccer ball to local children in Joateca, Morazán department, El Salvador, October 22, 1984. By 1983, United States military advisors in El Salvador had implemented a counterinsurgency strategy of 'low-intensity conflict' with an emphasis on winning the hearts and minds of the population through civic action and psychological warfare. This pacification plan was modeled after the Civil Operations and Revolutionary Development Support (CORDS) program instituted in South Vietnam in the late 1960s. Domingo Monterrosa was killed the following day in a helicopter explosion. FMLN guerrillas led by Joaquín Villalobos, who had previously denounced Monterrosa for his command authority over the December 1980 civilian massacre in El Mozote, claimed responsibility for the helicopter crash. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217371503-QPCUAUCYB3794YMRLZBI/elsalvador_nb_0104_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White A United States Army advisor, left, leads Salvadoran army soldiers during an open air class in San Juan Opico, El Salvador, March 1, 1983. With the escalation of U.S. military aid in 1981, 55 military advisors, or the Mobile Training Team, MTT, arrived in El Salvador and were stationed at bases around the country. Referred to as "trainers" to discourage comparisons with U.S. advisors during the Vietnam War, the trainers in El Salvador worked to strengthen the military capacity of the Salvadoran Armed Forces as well as enforce the preferred military strategy of the war's largest funder, the United States government. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217367188-YV1JZCRDZX5Y726EBOYA/elsalvador_nb_0101_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White Laborers repair a road for a work-for-pay-and-food construction program sponsored by the United States Agency for International Development, USAID, in San Vicente, El Salvador, April 1, 1983. USAID efforts in El Salvador were dramatically shaped by U.S. geopolitical concerns during the Cold War. Social and economic programs served as both humanitarian relief and a counterinsurgency strategy of pacification that was refined from its previous employment during the Vietnam War. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217345884-L8NJ3EPMURWC6LDSJUDG/elsalvador_nb_0025_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White A group of laborers and their families gather to receive food allotments as part of a work-for-pay-and-food construction program, San Vicente, El Salvador, April 1, 1983. The program was sponsored by the United States Agency for International Development, USAID. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217419255-SKQWK1PI73HR6F8XIULU/elsalvador_nb_0278_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White United States Army Staff Sergeant Courtney Gary from B/3/7 SFG Panama, attached to the U.S. Military Group in El Salvador, right, checks the targets of Salvadoran soldiers during rifle practice in San Vicente department, El Salvador, December 1, 1983. With the escalation of U.S. military aid in 1981, 55 military advisors, or the Mobile Training Team, MTT, arrived in El Salvador and were stationed at bases around the country. Regulations on the capacities and number of advisors stationed were largely ignored or circumvented by the Reagan administration. Special training camps were created in neighboring Honduras for Salvadoran military units to avoid restrictions on the country's advisors limit. Additional advisors were deployed and covertly financed through the CIA under the guise of "intelligence operations". https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217402279-ZISZRTN0QADPW4VCEXTH/elsalvador_nb_0186_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White Salvadoran army recruits hang from a crossbar during a training exercise overseen by United States Army Rangers and Special Forces at the Ilopango air base in San Salvador, El Salvador, January 1, 1982. The base was used by the U.S. military operating in the region as a headquarters for covert activities. Among the operations carried out were CIA-sponsored supply flights to the Nicaraguan Contras. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217390538-IMHLKP4IGI0H7YLFA8PK/elsalvador_nb_0160_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White An armored Cadillac car belonging to the United States Embassy pulls up to an arriving U.S. government jet plane in Ilopango, El Salvador, November 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217419787-47IO01YFKRI34IS5CD9K/elsalvador_nb_0284_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White United States Secretary of State George Shultz makes a statement to the media upon arrival at the military airport in Ilopango, El Salvador, January 31, 1984. Shultz was met by Salvadoran Foreign Minister Fidel Chavez Mena, center right. Considered the last major battle of the Cold War, the Central American conflicts drew significant attention from Washington, with officials frequently visiting the region to assess strategies as well as encourage the doctrines of military victory and democracy building. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217342107-V76PY3OTDJ6FWJB5APKU/elsalvador_nb_0014_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White United Nations Ambassador Jeane Kirkpatrick arrives in El Salvador during a ten-day tour of Central America and is escorted by Salvadoran Foreign Minister Fidel Chavez Mena, left, and United States Ambassador to El Salvador Deane Hinton, right, for a series of meetings in San Salvador, El Salvador, February 9, 1983. After returning to Washington, she recommended an immediate increase in military aid for El Salvador and rejected any dialogue between the Salvadoran government and the guerrillas. Kirkpatrick, as one of the extreme "hardliners" in foreign policy in the Reagan administration, publicly supported right-wing authoritarian regimes who shared a firm anticommunist stance and advocated for increasing U.S. military support for these regimes in spite of mounting human rights violations against their civilian populations. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217355887-S2TMNA7GGXB7BRD382A7/elsalvador_nb_0053_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White President of the Junta Revolucionaria de Gobierno, Revolutionary Government Junta, JRG, José Napoleón Duarte addresses a press conference following the presidential election in San Salvador, El Salvador, March 28, 1982. National elections were called to transition power from the JRG to a provisional civilian president. The Constituent Assembly elected Álvaro Alfredo Magaña Borja to succeed Duarte on May 2, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217413638-CRSCCO49Q7BGSUU7N3EF/elsalvador_nb_0240_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White New cadets arrive for their first day at the Escuela Militar Capitán General Gerardo Barrios in Santa Tecla, El Salvador, January 1, 1983. Lack of opportunity for social and economic ascension led many young Salvadorans towards military inscription. Graduates from this competitive academy would go on to occupy key positions in the state-military apparatus. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217369677-YP66GMO9G10ON0Y6D1YB/elsalvador_nb_0102_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White A crew from ABC Television films a young fighter from the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, as guerrillas stop commercial traffic along the Pan American Highway in Usulatán department, El Salvador, May 1, 1983. Every major paper and wire service had a bureau in El Salvador while international concern maintained the Central American conflicts as hemispheric battles over communist expansion. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217398299-TFT6LK429LSY1SU6VWMZ/elsalvador_nb_0179_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White Three leftist guerrillas from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, stand beside the corpses of Salvadoran army soldiers along a highway near Suchitoto, El Salvador, February 12, 1983. The soldiers were ambushed by the FPL guerrillas along the only road that leads to the city of Suchitoto. Disrupting the transportation of commercial goods through a takeover of major highways was one of several types of insurgency campaigns employed by the guerrillas against state economic infrastructure. It also proved successful in reducing the mobility of the Salvadoran Armed Forces and paramilitary forces. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217379970-D5N65O8R588AL6JLAJLS/elsalvador_nb_0134_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White A television news crew, lower left, inspects the damaged suspension bridge across the Lempa River that was recently bombed by guerrillas in Cuscatlán department, El Salvador, January 3, 1984. The 800-foot bridge is the largest in Central America. The Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, had launched a successful campaign against economic infrastructure with the destruction of major bridges, which affected the country's export economy and reduced the mobility of the Salvadoran Armed Forces and paramilitary forces. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217383634-SHEN2OMGL3S792J02UZT/elsalvador_nb_0146_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White Civilians look over the dead bodies of three civil defensemen killed during an overnight attack by guerrillas from the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, in Santa Clara, El Salvador, July 1, 1982. Civil defense patrols were utilized by the authoritarian state regime as a form of paramilitary control, specifically over the rural sectors of society. It is reported that the civil defense patrols along with the Salvadoran National Guard were complicit in indiscriminate attacks on peasant cooperatives and villages suspected of subversive sympathies. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217358623-EVY5VIZ4J39EIMKT0ZV0/elsalvador_nb_0074_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White The sister of a civil defenseman faints upon hearing of the death of her brother during an overnight attack on the civil defense post in Santa Clara, El Salvador, July 1, 1982. Guerrillas from the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, attacked overnight killing six civil defensemen before Salvadoran army soldiers arrived the next morning to retake the town. Civil defense units in El Salvador were under military command and operated particularly in rural areas where guerrilla support was high. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217407840-V16GRL0V775D1LY4EH3S/elsalvador_nb_0228_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White A close-up of United States military advisor Colonel John D. Waghelstein as he smokes a cigar during a press conference at the U.S. Embassy in San Salvador, El Salvador, June 28, 1983. Waghelstein served as commander of the U.S. trainers stationed in the country and was one of the army's leading experts on counterinsurgency warfare. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217398794-KT73IKS1JMCIQ69T276N/elsalvador_nb_0182_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White A member of the Salvadoran guerrilla group Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, stands in front of two burning commercial vehicles on the Pan American Highway in Usulután, El Salvador, March 1, 1983. Guerrillas tactics for disrupting the transportation of commercial goods were employed in protest of economic inequality and to show defiance to the authoritarian state regime. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217381481-B16OO9V6H2LPODWZ7JGT/elsalvador_nb_0136_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White Members of the media gather in a funeral parlor to film the dead body of a Dutch journalist killed in guerrilla territory two days earlier, San Salvador, El Salvador, March 19, 1982. Jacobus (Koos) Koster, Hans Ter Laan, Jan Kuiper and Johannes (Joop) Willemsen were shot and killed by Salvadoran military forces while they were pursuing an interview with leftist guerrillas from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, in the Chalatenango department. The Salvadoran government and the United States embassy in El Salvador denied knowledge of the ambush. They claimed that the journalists were caught in an ongoing firefight between guerrilla soldiers and the military, though the bodies of the journalists showed signs of torture and physical abuse. The U.S. and Salvadoran official statement was later refuted with witness testimony in the 1993 publication of the United Nations Truth Commission for El Salvador. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217334990-U4V8W9TW8553DBEQ8EC9/elsalvador_nb_0007_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White Salvadoran military commanders and the head of the Treasury Police Colonel Nicolás Carranza, 3rd left, sit during a military ceremony at the Escuela Militar Capitán General Gerardo Barrios in Santa Tecla, El Salvador, May 1, 1983. Carranza worked with Roberto D'Aubuisson and José Guillermo García to establish the paramilitary network of death squads around the country in the late 1970s. As Vice Minister of Defense from 1979 to 1981 and head of the notorious Treasury Police in 1983, he exercised command over the forces responsible for widespread attacks on civilians. A paid CIA informant who received $90,000 annually to procure intelligence on the Salvadoran left, he resided in the United States from 1985 until his death in 2017. In 2015, Carranza was found guilty in United States Federal District Court for crimes against humanity, extrajudicial assassination, and torture. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217395016-WTT22Y4ZAS3JAVUMOWBW/elsalvador_nb_0168_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White Armed guerrillas from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, disembark from a passenger bus in La Palma, El Salvador, February 6, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217361960-LNQKJTFP4M7NGUJQUG8U/elsalvador_nb_0076_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White A woman and her children wait for bus transportation in the Mejicanos neighborhood in San Salvador, El Salvador, March 1, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217339797-3VRPXPKLXXSL5166185S/elsalvador_nb_0013_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White Journalists from western news organizations listen to leftist guerrilla officials from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, as they respond to questions during a press conference in La Palma, El Salvador, February 6, 1983. FPL, as a member of the coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, acquired arms and strategic support from socialist parties in Vietnam, Nicaragua, Cuba, and the Soviet Union to fund their campaigns. The FMLN and their political counterpart the Frente Democrático Revolucionario, FDR, were recognized as the established insurgency in El Salvador and played an integral role in the 1992 peace accords. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217405936-JMCAA6QQOFSZ72H3SZC6/elsalvador_nb_0226_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White At the central office of the Salvadoran Human Rights Commission, a staff member, left, listens to women relay their cases regarding disappeared family members in San Salvador, El Salvador, January 1, 1983. It is estimated that between 8,000 and 10,000 people were forcibly disappeared from the years 1980 to 1992 in El Salvador. While the amnesty law passed after the signing of the peace accords guaranteed impunity for all individuals accused of grave crimes against humanity, including cases of disappeared people, efforts to locate and identify the missing continue as a significant element in the post-conflict process of national reconciliation. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1623783150508-J91O1R4GEARL483D93RL/elsalvador_nb_0063_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White Two guerrillas from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, watch a low-flying Salvadoran military observation plane near the Guazapa volcano on the road to Suchitoto, El Salvador, August 1, 1983. The FPL, a leftist militant group within the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, was one of the primary insurgency groups fighting. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217410726-AM609KKQRLRERIOSD7BA/elsalvador_nb_0235_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White A Salvadoran husband and wife couple stand on their deeded farmland in San Vicente department, El Salvador, June 26, 1983. Agrarian reform initiated in 1980 in El Salvador was designed by United States advisors, financed by the United States government, and implemented by the Salvadoran military. The reform followed the model previously implemented in the Vietnam War of dividing large pieces of land into cooperatives in an effort to pacify a population considered to be sympathetic to the guerrilla insurgency. However, the model did not attempt to dismantle the landowner oligarchy nor the redistribution of coffee plantations, two critical causes of the armed conflict. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217415016-FZJ7HWR5WIWVBL364N8U/elsalvador_nb_0241_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White Guerrillas from the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, speak with local residents of San Agustín, Usulután department, El Salvador, July 5, 1983. The ERP merged with four other leftist organizations in 1980 to form the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN. The group drew its name from Salvadoran communist leader and revolutionary Agustín Farabundo Martí, who led a peasant revolt in 1932 that had lasting consequences for the indigenous and campesino communities. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217349550-LHFAZMIZX4OZDOOUUVOI/elsalvador_nb_0028_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White Salvadoran laborers load bags of freshly picked coffee beans destined for export at a privately-owned coffee finca in Santa Tecla, El Salvador, October 1, 1983. The coffee industry has been the backbone of El Salvador’s export economy since its days as a Spanish colony. Since civil war broke out in 1980, the industry has been in decline, with factors including the decrease in the price of coffee on the market and the disruption of production and export from continued warfare between government security forces and insurgents. In recent decades, the effects of climate change have emerged as a central concern for the industry in El Salvador and other Central American countries. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217411507-YEWX2YUXSXIMXC9CEX3H/elsalvador_nb_0238_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White Three local residents play a traditional Salvadoran song on a recorder and two drums in central El Salvador, June 26, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217416502-NJJQEK0UBWE3RUFGRVK9/elsalvador_nb_0267_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White Local residents move their belongings before an assault by the Atlacatl Battalion in pursuit of guerrillas from the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, in Tenancingo, El Salvador, September 27, 1983. Residents would eventually return to their homes and farms after the fighting ceased. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217376030-E7YFDO8W8RJ0W49LI97X/elsalvador_nb_0128_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White An altar with a statue of Jesus Christ is carried in a religious procession through the streets in Perquín, Morazán department, El Salvador, October 23, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217388285-CSBQAZ8835UN5IXF4WIX/elsalvador_nb_0156_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White United States Ambassador Deane Hinton, center, hands an American flag to Roberto D'Aubuisson, President of the Constituent Assembly, in San Salvador, El Salvador, April 1, 1983. In addition to founding the conservative political party Alianza Republicana Nacionalista, ARENA, D'Aubuisson was a former official of the Agencia Nacional de Seguridad Salvadoreña, ANSESAL, the intelligence sector of the death squads. He was named responsible as giving the orders for the assassination of Archbishop Óscar Romero on March 24, 1980. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217384972-MIOZCDNL22BJ3YWACXMQ/elsalvador_nb_0148_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White Marching band majorettes line up before a military parade for graduating army soldiers in Santa Tecla, El Salvador, October 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622553298085-CAH05L6G59WIEVF5V74M/elsalvador_nb_0292_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White Women and children line up for medical care at a military clinic in Perquín, Morazán department, El Salvador, October 23, 1983. Perquín was one of several towns in the Morazán department that were controlled by guerrillas from the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN, during the twelve-year armed conflict. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217365622-IDJD8LGWFUBHWRTKR2BZ/elsalvador_nb_0093_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White Salvadoran members of the Atlacatl Battalion cross a river during a military operation in San Miguel department, El Salvador, September 1, 1983. Rapid reaction battalions were trained in counterinsurgency tactics to combat guerrilla warfare and were designed and funded by the United States military. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217325739-E1VTRYBK81DVWYR44W0S/elsalvador_nb_0004_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White In territory held by the guerrilla faction Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, armed guerrillas cross a river near the Salvadoran-Honduran border in Chalatenango department, El Salvador, February 25, 1981. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217421487-Q2ZXYK0BY2RLPMSFSRW7/elsalvador_nb_0310_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White A Salvadoran Air Force door gunner watches the terrain below while flying in a United States-made Bell UH-1 helicopter gunship over the Rio Lempa district in northern El Salvador, January 1, 1983. As early as 1950, the United States provided extensive support in the establishment of a counterintelligence apparatus for the Salvadoran military and police forces, in addition to direct military funding and assistance. Over the course of the civil war from 1980-1992, the United States sent more than $6 billion to the Salvadoran government in economic and military aid. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217345612-8BFJAN12YGYD5ZVZ16TW/elsalvador_nb_0022_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White A United States-supplied Bell UH-1 Salvadoran army helicopter with two M-60 machine guns flies over rural terrain in Morazán department, El Salvador, October 23, 1984. The helicopter flight was part of a mission to deliver a Catholic priest to the municipality of Perquín. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217375339-NT1XBHU898S2Y1SIFZS8/elsalvador_nb_0112_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White The hand of a mortally injured soldier sticks out of a hospital gurney at the Salvadoran military hospital in San Salvador, El Salvador, September 26, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217338976-ZSPE6TL02UQQ9TUZFYP1/elsalvador_nb_0011_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White Peruvian author Mario Vargas Llosa, left, interviews Salvadoran President Álvaro Magaña, right, at the Presidential Palace in San Salvador, El Salvador, May 10, 1984. Vargas Llosa was reporting on the 1984 Salvadoran presidential elections for Time magazine. Magaña's provisional government, installed in 1982, transferred presidential power from the Junta Revolucionaria de Gobierno, JRG, to a civilian for the first time since the Junta took power in a military coup in 1979. However, Magaña remained heavily influenced by members of the military high command in key policy decisions, which rendered accountability for state crimes and agrarian reform stagnant issues during his presidency. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217329870-J1G3RJG5IX7TAXGYLEPA/elsalvador_nb_0005_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White Judge Bernardo Rauda Murcia sits during an interview a day after convicting five former members of El Salvador's National Guard for the murders in December of 1980 of four United States churchwomen, Zacatecoluca, El Salvador, May 26, 1984. The trial was the first time in Salvadoran judicial history that a jury had convicted a member of the armed forces for a politically-motivated slaying. The case figured prominently in debate in the United States Congress over whether El Salvador should continue to receive military aid, which helped sustain support for the investigation and conviction of the five guardsmen. Several Salvadoran military officials, including then-head of the National Guard General Carlos Eugenio Vides Casanova and then-Minister of Defense General José Guillermo García, were later found to have "assisted or otherwise participated in" attempts to cover up the killings. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217352393-5J57ADPMY025K6FOH0XE/elsalvador_nb_0029_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White United States Ambassador Thomas R. Pickering listens to a question during a media press conference at his official residence in San Salvador, El Salvador, November 1, 1983. Pickering arrived in El Salvador in August of 1983 and was charged with guiding the Álvaro Magaña government to presidential elections, resisting attempts from the extreme-right to cripple agrarian reform, and monitoring the military progress of total victory advocated by U.S. military advisors. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217378163-I5MPHZZRUQWNX7M75IP2/elsalvador_nb_0131_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White At a press conference, a leader of the left-wing labor union coalition Movimiento de Unidad Sindical y Gremial de El Salvador, MUSYGES, displays a headline in the El Mundo daily newspaper reporting threats by the right-wing death squad Éjercito Secreto Anticomunista, ESA, in San Salvador, El Salvador, October 5, 1984. The Salvadoran political elite viewed labor unions as subversive enemies of the state and considered its leaders to be as dangerous as the guerrilla insurgency. El Salvador is a country burdened with one of the most rigid class structures in all of Latin America. Resistance to labor unions and land redistribution can be attributed to the economic oligarchy's overwhelming influence in the political and military spheres, as well as their connections to right-wing death squads. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217373190-ZUSA07P76U756VRROXHU/elsalvador_nb_0107_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White A woman lights a votive candle on the fourth anniversary of the death of Archbishop Óscar Romero in San Salvador, El Salvador, March 24, 1984. Archbishop Romero spoke out against the increasing violence and economic inequality sustained by the Salvadoran state regime and was murdered during mass on March 24, 1980 by a right-wing death squad under the orders of Roberto D'Aubuisson. The martyred Romero was officially canonized as a saint by Pope Francis in 2018. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217387319-3Z629X16GS4W5QNRIJLP/elsalvador_nb_0152_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White Colonel Sigifredo Ochoa Pérez, commander of the counterinsurgency unit Destacamiento Militar 2, points to a map describing FMLN guerrilla movement and infiltration routes at the military headquarters in Sensuntepeque, El Salvador, October 1, 1982. In 2015, the release of CIA documents related to the Salvadoran armed conflict proved Ochoa's command responsibility in the November 1981 massacre of the civilian population of Santa Cruz in the department of Cabañas. In December of 2019 he was placed under investigation in Salvadoran court for corruption charges related to his role as ambassador to Honduras from 2005-2009. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217349369-OR6DHKC1CBV6PXRQ3MXD/elsalvador_nb_0027_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White A member of the Salvadoran guerrilla group Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, moves through the ransacked office of the national telephone company in Jucuapa, El Salvador, February 1, 1983. The guerrilla's clothing is made up of captured pieces of the Salvadoran Armed Forces uniform. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217362714-UUJK474BHMC3FR5D4WXJ/elsalvador_nb_0079_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White Salvadoran soldiers from the Atlacatl Battalion wake in the early morning in fog-enveloped hills before moving into position against armed guerrillas from the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo, ERP, in San Miguel department, El Salvador, August 1, 1983. The Atlacatl Battalion was trained at Ft. Bragg in the United States by U.S. Special Forces as the first Salvadoran rapid response counterinsurgency battalion and was implicated in some of the most infamous human rights violations of the twelve-year armed conflict. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217334792-AARUBEP1B20ZL6WPYGQQ/elsalvador_nb_0006_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White Families congregate on the Pacific coast beach in La Libertad, El Salvador, January 1, 1983. The country was engaged in a twelve-year civil war between successive authoritarian regimes, backed by the United States, and the guerrilla coalition Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional, FMLN. The conflict would claim over 75,000 lives before peace negotiations concluded in 1992. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217358084-2AETBF1BXUMJUSCIIT4A/elsalvador_nb_0068_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White A day laborer uses a long-bladed saw to cut wooden planks on the cooperative El Sunza in Sonsonate, El Salvador, October 7, 1983. El Salvador's primary-export economic structure of the 20th century concentrated land ownership and income in the hands of a small economic elite. This oligarchy effectively marginalized the rural sector of the population by closing political, social, and economic arenas which resulted in high levels of support for the guerrilla insurgency in certain departments of the country. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217404734-GBMZJP1354AIQFLVIB0L/elsalvador_nb_0224_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White An old gnarled Guanacaste tree grows in a rural town in central El Salvador, June 26, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217352243-L4AA5GSJZVJZ7Z6IHSHA/elsalvador_nb_0044_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White Unidentified men look at two corpses in the city morgue in La Libertad, El Salvador, August 10, 1984. Both victims were shot in the face and showed additional signs of bruising. The twelve-year armed conflict would claim over 75,000 lives before peace negotiations concluded in 1992. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1622217408805-PZ5B5WKTEC72ZVQD0WR7/elsalvador_nb_0234_web.jpg + El Salvador Black & White A Salvadoran journalist uses a white flag to indicate to armed guerrillas from the Fuerzas Populares de Liberación, FPL, ahead on the road that he and his colleagues are traveling in peace along the Pan American Highway to San Vicente, El Salvador, June 24, 1983. Control of the Pan American Highway in El Salvador continually changed hands between FPL guerrillas and state security forces throughout the armed conflict. It is estimated that nearly 40 journalists lost their lives in the twelve-year civil war. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/greenpoint2023 daily 0.75 2023-10-30 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841300606-PL09JDVEKDBJMVY402TB/20210827_kodak_4x5_07_web.jpg GREENPOINT Teddy Bielonko, 60, and his sister, Teresa Bielonko, 58, sit in their front yard in Greenpoint. Teddy and Teresa were born in Bialystok, Poland. Teddy was a construction worker in Greenpoint and is now retired. Teresa was a manager of a local retail store. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1683733602463-CUM84413VFJU900RHK8N/20201204_krystyna-dura04_web.jpg GREENPOINT Krystyna Dura was born in Krakow, Poland. She is the owner of Cristina’s Restaurant in Greenpoint. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1698021109018-VKCP9ZWKD4D3O8NK0S0H/1_20230331_Krzysztof_Matyszczyk06_edit-LTI.jpg GREENPOINT Krzysztof Matyszczyk, 65, sits at his desk in Greenpoint. Krzysztof was born in Elblag, Poland and is a tax accountant. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1683732887545-U7UZ8AY9VBPQX9W6YP78/20210405_jozef-gawrys02_web.jpg GREENPOINT Danuta and Jozef Gawrys stand in front of the St. Stanislaus Kostka Church after an Easter Sunday mass. They are Polish-born residents of Greenpoint. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841323078-PJUZ9UHLS0AOZH8JSU4O/20230317_Michal-Lechowicz-LTI_edit_web.jpg GREENPOINT Michal Lechowicz, 42, is a baker and owner of Charlotte Patisserie in Greenpoint. Michal was born in Lomza, Poland. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841250548-4NTR7W09SQA5QUXSHJXO/20200914_danuta-dobrowolska02_web.jpg GREENPOINT Danuta Dobrowolska, 88, sits in her apartment in Greenpoint. Danuta arrived from Poland in the early 1990’s and before she retired worked for a family as a house cleaner in Williamsburg. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1683732786392-NATLNJSC3T0LKEUL3CG7/20210224_bielak01_web.jpg GREENPOINT Monika Bielak, 43, and Lucas Bielak, 45, are owners of the Lucas Electronics store in Greenpoint. Monika was born in Gdansk, Poland. Lucas was born in Lublin, Poland. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841298121-VTY9D9UJ4W8K88CCVCIE/20210427_andrzej-Ilczyszyn004-hires_web.jpg GREENPOINT Andrzej Ilczyszyn, 65, sits in his recording studio in his Greenpoint home. Andrzej was born in Zawiercie, Slaskie, Poland and worked as a project manager for New York City. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841335687-FHO9PD4AM009K6FJGMR1/20201115_karol-gabriel-komar01_web.jpg GREENPOINT Karol Komar, 43, was born in Lapy, Poland. He lives and works as a mason in Greenpoint. Gabriel Komar, 7, was born in Brooklyn, NY. He lives with his parents and older sister in Greenpoint. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841237838-Y7YA6RCTVR3RREQ9W8P8/20200817_ada-kaftan03_web.jpg GREENPOINT Ada Kaftan, 83, was born in Rudnik nad Sanem, Poland. She is retired and lives in Greenpoint. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841237748-CVQFFA1ELA76ZEB2VO9V/20200822_zofia-goreczny02_web.jpg GREENPOINT Zofia Goreczny, 69, was born in Wolyn, Poland. She is photographed in her Greenpoint backyard and worked locally at Kiszka Meat Market for over 20 years. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841256779-POGBFUTV6NKV4HVOT4WT/20201012_nicholas-kaponyas02_rescan_web.jpg GREENPOINT Nicholas Kapoynas, 21, sits at his concert piano in his home in Greenpoint. Nicholas, born in New York City, is a full-time music student whose mother, Bozena Konkiel, is a well known Greenpoint music teacher. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841251220-ECU0YQP7WGSE6GY75OVV/20200930_dzidka-bielski04_web.jpg GREENPOINT Maria Bielski, 70, was born in Kraków, Poland. She works as a Polish Boy Scout instructor in Greenpoint. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841328612-WEGURFN9SKGR68ZF4BT2/20230325_Janusz_Skowron_1_edit_web.jpg GREENPOINT Janusz Skowron, 65, is a well known artist in Greenpoint. Janusz was born in Kolbuszowa, Poland. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841314127-EA0V60D0FHJ5YNPR1RCB/20230219_agata_nowicka_02_edit_LTI_web.jpg GREENPOINT Agata Nowicka, 46, stands in her office apartment in Greenpoint. Agata is an artist and was born in Gdansk, Poland. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841264403-DQOSI3HLRK7030T0TL4A/20201116_emilia-susanna-felkner01_web.jpg GREENPOINT Emilia Felkner, 43, was born in Zielona Gora, Poland. Emilia is a bookkeeper and lives with her husband and 8 year old daughter, Susanna, in Greenpoint. Susanna was born in Brooklyn and was the 2019 winner of the Jr. Miss Greenpoint pageant. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1683733556121-WB7UIMDGAE0POKFPXWP1/20200617_Karolina_Zaniesienko03_web.jpg GREENPOINT Karolina Zaniesienko, 37, was born in Olsztyn, Poland. She lives in Greenpoint and works as a bartender. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1698021109055-8MNPCG4UGGQR8C73KBMA/6_20230621_Adam_Kownacki_01_edit+copy.jpg GREENPOINT Adam Kownacki, 34, stands in the schoolyard of PS 34 where he went to elementary school in Greenpoint. Adam was born in Lomza, Poland and is a ranked professional heavyweight boxer living and training in Miami, Florida. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1683733160558-U0Q427QXACRW1KUMK3QC/20201118_editya-julia-greer02v2.jpg GREENPOINT Edyta Greer, 45, and her daughter, Julia, 12, stand in Greenpoint’s McGorlick Park. Edyta, born in Wysokie Mazowieckie, Poland, is a university teacher. Julia, a high school student, was born in Baltimore, Maryland. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841288361-8PL95NMTHE2L8T2HF22B/20210405_henryk-majchrzak01_web.jpg GREENPOINT Henryk Majchrzak, 63, was born in Lobyz, Poland. Henryk works as a maintenance mechanic at a machine shop in Greenpoint. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1683733639905-SXQ01VDDLTNPAYP0K4UB/20200815_hanna-antoni-dudzic01_web.jpg GREENPOINT Hanna Dudzic, 65, and Antoni Dudzic, 69, sit in their bedroom in Greenpoint. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1683733700632-720ICP2BOMLD9QPU4ES7/20200722_piotrkuzniar01.jpg GREENPOINT Peter Kuzniar, 26, stands in the backyard of his house in Greenpoint. Peter was born in Lezajsk, Poland and is a construction superintendent for a New York City building company. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841244574-5IK6JDP87ABK5ZSDY0XL/20200909_szprengiel-kulma02_web.jpg GREENPOINT Adela Szprengiel, 71, was born in Gdansk, Poland. Adela worked as an outreach worker in Brooklyn, NY. Thadeusz Szprengiel, 71, was born in Gdansk, Poland. Thadeusz worked as a grocery importer. Krystyna Kulma, 61, was born in Lapy, Poland. Krystyna is a bookkeeper. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1683733760711-29101AUDF8ZQ0D4HS6LI/20210617_dariusz-warwas01_web.jpg GREENPOINT Dariusz Warwas, 65, stands in Greenpoint’s McGorlick Park. Dariusz was born in Wroclaw, Poland and is a construction worker and part-time musician. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1683733847655-TW9WH31CYYJC0HMAF626/20220524_4x5_Maria_Gawryluk_04_edit_web.jpg GREENPOINT Maria Gawryluk, 27, stands in McGorlick Park in Greenpoint. Maria was born in Krakow, Poland and is a visual artist living in Greenpoint. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841223923-M1YVDA32C25SII39XHYS/20200621_Kristian_Sobocinski02_web.jpg GREENPOINT Kristian Sobocinski, 34, Roman Sobocinski, 2, Monika Rybaczek, 34, were all born in Mazury, Poland. Kristian is a construction worker and lived in Greenpoint when he first arrived to the United States. They now live in a nearby neighborhood. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841244128-RNTXBT5S8APD7PR580RG/20200829_genowefa-weber06_web.jpg GREENPOINT Genowefa Weber, 78, was born in Wies Wierzchowicka, Gmino Rogowo, Poland. She lives in Greenpoint and worked as a cook in a local Polish restaurant called “Teresa” before retiring. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841275881-CWQT832WNWEW1VOD0WWC/20210113_venera-uzbekova-pierogi01_web.jpg GREENPOINT Venera Uzbekova, 51, from Uzbekistan works at the Family Pierogi Company in Greenpoint. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1683733997345-SVKTGN9K34SO0J4UPP1C/20200914_bogdan-zofia-kuper01_v02_web.jpg GREENPOINT Bogdan Kuper, 69, and his wife, Zofia Goreczny, 62, stand in their backyard garden in Greenpoint. Bogdan is from Sanok, Poland and is a bookkeeper. Zofia is from Wolyn, Poland and is a teacher. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1698021107004-YBFDCI4WKU67QE9XQ38B/3_20230424_Roman_Ploszaj_01_edit-LTI.jpg GREENPOINT Roman Ploszaj, 80, sits at a table at the Polish Slavic Center in Greenpoint. Roman was born in Lezajsk, Poland and is an engineer. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1683733932425-WFKY7JHKGNX52AP3GO5U/20210117_prochowski04_web.jpg GREENPOINT Marek Prochowski, upper right, 60, was born in Gdynia, Poland and lives with his wife Malgorzata, 55, fromKwidzyn, Poland. Their two children, Sabina, lower left, 19, and Ariel, 27, were born in New York City. The family lives in Greenpoint. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841271304-0SOHVQM5B5OWGTZ8QQHR/20201216_jurek-swiatkowski03_web.jpg GREENPOINT Jurek Swiatowski, 66, was born in Warsaw, Poland. He lives in Greenpoint and works as an architect. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841223793-2WHBHZYE3I11IFGCNP35/20200415_Stanislaw06_web.jpg GREENPOINT Stanislaw Ogorek, 83, stands across the street from his apartment in Greenpoint. Ogorek is from Frycowe Gory, Poland. He was a driver and a handyman in Greenpoint. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1683733996854-9TIQM4YX8M8VXEN32ZLB/20210820_rich-mazur_05_web.jpg GREENPOINT Richard Mazur, 72, stands in front of his house in Greenpoint. Richard arrived from Poland when he was twoyears, studied electrical engineering in college and is involved with civic affairs and real estate development in Greenpoint. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841230724-UEIQW44MWX5VEV3885EV/20200728_bozenawersocki01_web.jpg GREENPOINT Bozena Wersocki, 67, was born in Gdansk, Poland. She lives in Greenpoint and is retired. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1683734139607-7JGAVVTSZK43Z2I44ALQ/20210113_adam-szumilas-pierogi01_rescan_edit.jpg GREENPOINT Adam Szumilas, 76, was born in Busko Zdroj, Poland. He is the owner of Family’s Pierogi, Inc, located in Greenpoint. He arrived from Poland in 1982. Szumilas has a team of deaf employees in the traditional Polish pierogi-making shop. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841263645-CASHL2YNML7VV1VPGYK5/20201026_beta-teddy-anthonypuk01_web.jpg GREENPOINT Beata Puk, 42, was born in Bialystok, Poland. Her husband, Teddy Puk, 42, was born in Brooklyn, to Polish parents. Their son, Anthony, 10, born in New York City, is a student. The Puk family lives in Greenpoint in the same house where Teddy was raised. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841329861-QXBT9OQXWUJFOXGJCAPD/20230325_Marek_Prochowski_6_edit_web.jpg GREENPOINT Marek Prochowski, 65, is a pharmacist and owner of Markowa Apteka Pharmacy in Greenpoint. Marek was born in Lublin, Poland. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1683734001244-XN8N6XQWH53AFSEFRJ9D/20230225_katarzyna_fiorita_01_edit_V2_web.jpg GREENPOINT Katarzyna Fiorita, 45, a therapist, sits in her office where she sees patients in Greenpoint. Katarzyna was born in Poznan, Poland. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1683734198769-GGA79O6D2771RKR48PA2/20200711_Dobryniewski01_web.jpg GREENPOINT Jakub Dobryniewski, 23, stands in the backyard of the house his grandfather owns in Greenpoint. Jakub, a university student, was born in New York City to Polish-born parents. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1698021104760-N3PRQNJWXZQ4TLG6JDA0/2_20230412_Piwnica_02_edit.jpg GREENPOINT Piotr Czeczetkowicz (Piwnica), 49, stands in Greenpoint’s McCarren Park.Piwnica was born in Bialystok, Poland. He is the owner of a moving company specializing in transporting equipment for rock bands. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841269871-9FVFILZL87PQESHI5AO1/20201120_alina-borys02_web.jpg GREENPOINT Alina Borys, 42, was born in Nisko, Poland. She lives in Greenpoint and is the owner of a local jewelry store. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1683734253624-MPXYQC86F7TCLA0U8TZA/20200726_revsobczak04_web.jpg GREENPOINT Rev. Marek Sobczak, 66, stands on the grounds of St. Stanislaus Kostka Church. He has been serving at St. Stanislaus Kostka Church since 2008. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1681841321148-L15KTYFGJYF4OBV8247H/20230317_Ismena_Dabrowska_6_edit_web.jpg GREENPOINT Ismena Dabrowska, 31, a writer and journalist, stands in Greenpoint’s Transmitter Park across the East River from Manhattan. Ismena was born in Krapkowice, Poland. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1698021104746-E43URJPBUZUOC7VNO5N4/5_20230428_Irena_Perzynska_01_edit-LTI.jpg GREENPOINT Irena Perzynska stands next to the stage at the Polish Slavic Center in Greenpoint. Irena is from Torun, Poland and was a school teacher. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1698021106913-YB7IPVM5Y07NPVT91VSE/7_20230621_Greg_Fryc_01_edit+copy.jpg GREENPOINT Greg Fryc, 44, stands next to a wall commemorating World War ll Polish veterans at the Polish National Home in Greenpoint. Greg was born in Mielec, Poland, moved to Greenpoint as a teenager and is a music and entertainment promoter and producer. He was also president of the Pulaski Association of Business and Professional Men. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1698021110655-NMYVQ6XODM8ZGOOC27Q7/4_20230426_Isabela_Barry_03-LTI+copy.jpg GREENPOINT Izabela Barry, 66, stands next to a shelf of Polish language books at the New York Public Library branch in Greenpoint. Izabela is a librarian and is responsible for creating the shelves of Polish language books at the Norman Avenue library. She was born in Zabreze, Poland. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1698021110986-5M4WZDF8XB0SUM8F92SC/8_20230922_Mieczyslaw_Gubernat_12_edit+copy.jpg GREENPOINT Mieczyslaw Gubernat, 82, stands in the Father Popieluszko Square in Greenpoint. Mieczyslaw was born in Poland, became a violinist and founded the Slavic Arts Ensemble in 1977. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/greenpoint daily 0.75 2021-12-27 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583947899-KF05Q1STIA6J1TVW56TZ/20200914_danuta-dobrowolska02.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Danuta Dobrowolska sits in her apartment in Greenpoint. Danuta arrived from Poland in the early 1990’s. Before retiring, she worked for a family as a house cleaner in Williamsburg. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583933440-SRDOHX555YIAEUUKQJEO/20200817_ada-kaftan03.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Ada Kaftan, 83, was born in Rudnik nad Sanem, Poland. She is retired and lives in Greenpoint. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583931072-80OXSAD52D7LWN0UEHVL/20200728_bozenawersocki01.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Bozena Wersocki, 67, was born in Gdansk, Poland. She lives in Greenpoint and is retired. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583938931-053EFLA8XFE5H2GV3171/20200829_genowefa-weber06.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Genowefa Weber, 78, was born in Wies Wierzchowicka, Gmino Rogowo, Poland. She lives in Greenpoint and worked as a cook in a local Polish restaurant called “Teresa” before retiring. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639584003141-7L6MVV6420WUD558I2G8/20210827_kodak_4x5_07_edit.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Teddy Bielonko, 60, and his sister, Teresa Bielonko, 58, sit in their front yard in Greenpoint. Teddy and Teresa were born in Bialy Stok, Poland. Teddy was a construction worker in Greenpoint and is now retired. Teresa was a manager of a local retail store. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639584007514-XN1SO23DBODKDT34QQ0H/Kristian_Sobocinski02_edit.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Kristian Sobocinski, 34, Roman Sobocinski, 2, Monika Rybaczek, 34, were all born in Mazury, Poland. Kristian is a construction worker and lived in Greenpoint when he first arrived to the United States. They now live in anearby neighborhood. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583963250-MBCQAXKDGJ3PETK68W1I/20201026_alina-viktoriafadrowska01_edit.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Alina Fadrowska stands next to her daughter, Wiktoria, 14, in their Greenpoint backyard. Alina, from Raigrod, Poland, is a hairdresser. Wiktoria was born in New York City and is a high school student. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583978603-623NGR2QI1ESVMH01XJJ/20201118_robert-miriam-jann-gorski02_edit.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Robert Gorski, 54, was born in Ostroleka, Poland. He lives in Greenpoint and works as an executive assistant. MiriamSy-Gorski 53, was born in Dakar, Senegal and works as a bank manager. Yann Gorski, 15, was born in New York Citywhere he is a high school student. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583942128-7CBVN300FJ7Z9XDITFB6/20200909_szprengiel-kulma02_edit.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Adela Szprengiel, 71, was born in Gdansk, Poland. Adela worked as an outreach worker in Brooklyn, NY. Thadeusz Szprengiel, 71, was born in Gdansk, Poland. Thadeusz worked as a grocery importer. Krystyna Kulma, 61, was born in Lapy, Poland. Krystyna is a bookkeeper. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583969012-FGHTVE5M1L9DVS4WJ3KN/20201026_monika-gabriella-lukasrobert02_rescan_edit.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Monika Bolkun-Robert, 39, stands with her two children, Gabriella, 7, and Lukas, 5, in their Greenpoint backyard. Monika was born in Bialy Stok, Poland and her two children were born in New York City. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639584000851-EC4BRETOMTI52GTKNTBX/20210820_rich-mazur_05_edit.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Richard Mazur, 72, arrived in Greenpoint from Poland in 1950. He lives in Greenpoint and is the Executive Director of the North Brooklyn Development Corporation. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583927119-9L76VGPP756PNAM0JPHZ/20200719_bianka_szczerba01_edit.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Bianka Szczerba, 25, stands in her backyard in Greenpoint. Bianka was born in New York City to Polish parents and is a teacher of deaf and hard of hearing students. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583992290-24B9F0ORTFCZXL69LWZ7/20210117_jacek-samilko02+copy_edit.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Jacek Samelko, 43, stands in front of his home in Greenpoint. Samelko, a construction worker in Greenpoint, is from Kolno, Poland. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583990296-K1WP77WHPMZA2494FTMO/20210113_venera-uzbekova-pierogi01_edit.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Venera Uzbekova, 55, stands inside the Family’s Pierogi factory in Greenpoint. Venera is from Uzbekistan and is part of a team of deaf employees in the traditional Polish pierogi-making shop in Greenpoint. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639584012195-R3ANMKFQK3E6N48D030E/Stanislaw06+copy_edit.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Stanislaw Ogorek, 83, stands across the street from his apartment in Greenpoint. Ogorek is from Frycowe Gory, Poland. He was a driver and a handyman in Greenpoint. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639610828352-D6ADARKYPQXTH92NA3Q1/20201216_maria-gawryluk02_edit.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Maria Gawryluk, 27, stands near her apartment in Greenpoint. Maria, from Kraków, Poland, is a fine art photographer and videographer. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583957465-GMED7QGESEZRPRKDCB31/20201012_nicholas-kaponyas02_rescan_edit.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Nicholas Kapoynas, 21, sits at his concert piano in his home in Greenpoint. Nicholas is a full-time music student whose mother, Bozena Konkiel, is a well known Greenpoint music teacher. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583996132-22QLM43C9LN0KH1K36UJ/20210224_m-bielak08_rescan_edit.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Monika Bielak, 43, was born in Gdansk, Poland. Monika and her husband own the Lucas Electronics store in Greenpoint. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583960554-0QSUUI15I7C73E9U3KLM/20201021_natalia-iwanczuk06+copy_edit.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Natalia Iwanczuk, 32, was born in Italy to Polish parents. Natalia lives in Greenpoint and works as an office manager. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583945834-YDE2V9EK8OYU4L06J9Y6/20200914_bogdan-kuper02_edit.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Bogdan Kuper, 69, stands in his backyard garden in Greenpoint. Bogdan is from Sanok, Poland and is a bookkeeper. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583966944-Q0VM2SMEDCXV7YEBJ23U/20201026_beta-teddy-anthonypuk01_edit.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Beata Puk, 42, was born in Bialystok, Poland. Her husband, Teddy Puk, 42, was born in Brooklyn, to Polish parents.Their son, Anthony, 10, born in New York City, is a student. The Puk family lives in Greenpoint in the same housewhere Teddy was raised. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583972797-E81XE1QWA1D0AWEITSAZ/20201106_hartley02_edit.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Iwona Hartley, 42, and Eric Hartley, 43, stand with their children, Lucas, 14, and Angelina, 8, in their backyard in Greenpoint. Iwona and her siblings were born in New York City and raised in Greenpoint by Polish parents who immigrated from Poland in the 1980’s. Their daughter Angelina wears a traditional Polish dress. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583974536-4X6FOSG96XR2N3K1VFCR/20201116_emilia-susanna-felkner01_edit.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Emilia Felkner, 43, was born in Zielona Gora, Poland. Emilia is a bookkeeper and lives with her husband and 8 year old daughter, Susanna, in Greenpoint. Susanna was born in Brooklyn and was the 2019 winner of the Jr. Miss Greenpoint pageant. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583953731-9WX3X3YG5PYIZ9751QHX/20200930_dzidka-bielski04.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Maria Bielski, 70, was born in Kraków, Poland. She works as a Polish Boy Scout instructor in Greenpoint. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583984787-UGTVOZ0EGWGM3QC494OZ/20201216_jurek-swiatkowski03_edit.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Jurek Swiatowski, 66, was born in Warsaw, Poland. He lives in Greenpoint and works as an architect. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583936648-ELV1RT9XUPCG3EMCAYWQ/20200822_zofia-goreczny02.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Zofia Goreczny, 69, in her Greenpoint backyard. She was born in Wolyn, Poland and worked locally at Kiszka Meat Market for over 20 years. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583921935-ZYY9GBY9JM9MYSKYPRWE/20200711_Morawiec01_edit.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Julian Moroweic, 85, was born in Radwan, Poland, where he was a political opposition leader. He is pictured in his backyard in Greenpoint. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1639583980596-QS70G9KIRIA6TNYLIMK1/20201120_alina-borys02.jpg UNITED STATES: GREENPOINT Alina Borys, 42, was born in Nisko, Poland. She lives in Greenpoint and is the owner of a local jewelry store. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/vietnam-1 daily 0.75 2021-12-30 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555202877-XMOMQU5JSR34W25PD6V9/4x5_014_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A dirt road leading through Khanh Phu’s rice paddies in the fertile Red River Delta. September 1988. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555335043-OAC1DDWW2JGG7WAE8PLF/T98530_TK1_011_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Rice harvested by hand is carried without carts or mechanized transport. June 1989 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555894053-WPBGOYXI8L0ICM225WSM/T112424_026_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR At harvest time, villagers are expected to cut the rice crop by hand or carry bundles to the village rice cooperative building for weighing and husking. Rice crops in the north generally take 4 months from seedlings to harvest. Northern Vietnam has only one crop a year. June 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555710019-LPE98Y6OHRLUKAHP69AW/T110590_50_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Rice seedlings grow near family Buddhist spirit houses on the eastern side of Khanh Phu. February 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555857718-114NLAUX5LU6BTA92215/T112424_007_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Villagers harvest rice. The New Land Law passed in December 1987 permitted 65% of the rice harvest would go to the farmer and 35% would go for state and cooperatives taxes/commitments. June 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593556040128-WN698863YVXLQ0D29BTT/T115186_022_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A woman transplants rice seedlings to an irrigated field. January 1990. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555875413-N7UY6TLLUSKNJIMY172M/T112424_008_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A village man gathers rice stalks into a tied bundle during a harvest. Between 1990 and 2010, Vietnam became one of the world’s leading rice producers. June 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555396264-YPPTKYF5BI3SF3I2E31U/T98530_TK1_037_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A resident collects town water using a bamboo carrying pole. September 1988. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555626766-WFFB6AW33JWNUNMKYUDF/T110590_038_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A young man standing with a Brahman bull in his yard. February 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555691865-KVZD5IVGZDA5MO7BZTRS/T110590_045_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A farmer prepares a rice field using a water buffalo to pull a tilling rake. Buffalos play an integral part in Vietnam’s agrarian economy. February 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593556024725-32Z5X0DDMAV0A4JKASQH/T115186_20_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A tractor from Czechoslovakia prepares an irrigated rice field for planting. The tractor, known as the red buffalo, was one of only three in the Khanh Phu area and was purchased at the end of collectivization. January 1990. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1596235755944-6HT193NB2A4SV11PYM7R/T98530_TK1_007.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Two boys use traditional basket nets to catch shrimp, crabs and small fish. September 1988. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555191589-7LLQ5RC0UOF4ZFZWVXD7/4x5_013_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A young girl stands on a covered fishing platform. Situated on the interconnected canal system of the Red River Delta, families use large nets which are lowered into the water and raised up catching small crabs, fish and shrimp that were sold in the town’s open market or used at home. September 1988. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555144776-FAZHRJGAPQ50LO7B56EN/4x5_008_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A man leans against a carrying pole made of bamboo as he prepares to load bundles of harvested rice to bring to the town’s cooperative compound for weighing and husking. A carrying pole is made from a full straight piece of bamboo and depending on the weight of what it will hold, can be hardened or remain flexible and thinner for lighter loads. June 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555467213-K92BU4VIIDEOIVW5OKD8/T98530_TK1_069_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Piles of straw and husks from rice harvests is piled at the Khanh Phu cooperative. Virtually every part of the rice crop is exploited so nothing goes to waste. September 1988. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555416963-25G0AOD2E1AL2N1OCL01/T98530_TK1_043_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A water spigot is sealed using a burlap cloth at the village pig breeding cooperative. Khanh Phu’s pig breeding cooperative was nearly empty as locals began to breed and sell their pigs on the open market with the opening of the economy. September 1988. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555359854-3ULAI211MLSELRNMK6KH/T98530_TK1_013_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A village woman watches as her rice harvest is weighed at the Khanh Phu cooperative. When the New Land Law passed in December 1987, villagers were permitted to sell their rice crop on the open market; 65% of the rice harvest would go to the farmer and 35% would go for state and cooperative commitments. Vietnam quickly grew to become the world’s third largest rice exporter in 1989, after China and the United States. September 1988. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555366354-JH3RZ339M11XUK3I8O8S/T98530_TK1_016_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Men and women help at the village rice cooperative bagging rice after it’s run through a husking machine. September 1988. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555447709-1NA6Q6NUCLKLQHL5H8E2/T98530_TK1_059_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A man adjusts the rice husking machine at the village rice cooperative. September 1988. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555912642-0S9HH6G2AS4J3DVT4PB1/T112424_034_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Women buy small crabs caught in the nearby canals of the Red River Delta. June 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555326071-0C76JWNABP8C1E8BL0BW/T98530_TK1_010_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Khanh Phu school opens with a contingency of Young Pioneers wearing red bandanas. Started by Ho Chi Minh, the Young Pioneers are an educational force of the Vietnam Communist Youth Union. September 1988. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555172179-IWGCYK0XAD0QXFB9HXFI/4x5_011_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Portrait of a large extended family with the matriarchal head sitting in the middle. September 1988. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555303076-K7ASJ34HAHMILA02Y4U4/T98530_TK1_009_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Teachers at the Khanh Phu central school observe an opening day ceremony before classes begin. September 1988. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555292637-K92BD60RKWZQIQZ8ZAZP/T98530_TK1_008_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Le Van Phuc, 70 years, left, General Secretary of the Communist Party in Khanh Phu, opens a meeting of the local cooperative leaders. September 1988. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555431730-QAFRPS0A47D5ISGYHG4A/T98530_TK1_056_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Le Van Phuc, left, waits for a letter to be mailed at the village’s post office. September 1988. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555267613-LWR7O7YZPKICCGEJ1Y8N/T98530_TK1_004_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Le Van Phuc making a phone call on Khanh Phu’s only telephone. September 1988. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593556003277-KX0K2EH0USKPZU9NSW0H/T115186_19_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A family watches their black & white TV, one of the few television sets in the village. January 1990. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555170832-LZB3NPO7Z5JQ5S84WQWV/4x5_010_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Interior room of a village home with mosquito netting and wooden bed, September 1988. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555822178-2K7PKBWIUPS232RSWF7B/T112424_004_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A man sleeps under a mosquito net during midday heat. June 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555764301-BMFABV3VIPDXITUX9AUG/T110590_068_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Dinh Van Hieu, 67 years, former General Secretary of the Communist Party of Khanh Phu. Of Mr. Hieu’s eight children, six died of diseases in their youth. He has ten grandchildren. February 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1596235749278-6FBX6VJ93R2WL0WOB85U/0002.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Workers at the Khanh Phu brick factory take a smoke break. Opened in 1972, the factory made 10,000 bricks/day. September 1988. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555662311-SASMPFCNJZ5GWW6BAR23/T110590_040_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Le Van Phuc rinses out a washcloth in his home’s courtyard. Khanh Phu homes did not have running water or inside plumbing. February 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555948045-V0O6EXXCPZXAV2BK624C/T115186_003_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A bride and groom ride off on a bicycle to their wedding along a Khanh Phu canal road. Traditional marriage custom requires that the groom give the bride 500 betel nuts, 3 kgs of tea, 10 cartons of local cigarettes (or 1 carton of Bensen & Hedges 555), 4 liters of local alcohol, a wedding outfit, and a conical hat. January 1990. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555214645-AF7G55F1Q4GYEUBZLCSC/KhanhPhu_004_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Dinh Van Hieu sits for a portrait on his porch. Hieu was the former Secretary General of the Communist Party in Khanh Phu. September 1988. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555234593-EZTIT8DJ83SWIMJPHFQF/KhanhPhu_006_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR An elderly woman and neighbor of Din Van Hieu in Khanh Phu sits for her portrait. January 1990. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593556095905-40LROIWRHAIBNOZM434C/T115186_032_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A live chicken is packed with vegetables into a wicker basket. January 1990. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555744524-3G3ST29XTQBJOZ79BY1A/T110590_058_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Dinh Van Hieu, upper left with hat, sits next to his wife, upper left with head covering, and their ten grandchildren. February 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593556075593-HPLZ62DJYJVI8LNC21F9/T115186_028_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR One boy threatens to hit another with a corn stalk. Dinh Van Hieu’s granddaughter, right, looks on. January 1990. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555553481-7BMRI1VY4CTPZ6S7LUKG/T110590_017_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A large family eats a traditional Tet Lunar New Year meal of pork, noodles and vegetables and rice. February 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555608029-YBWG0656IDF93SG4NH78/T110590_034_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Interior of a private home in Khanh Phu includes a boom box and a rifle. September 1988. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555643884-0Z075T3J17SH5L60B9SL/T110590_039_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A villager climbs a telephone pole to retrieve a sign board. February 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555676603-6Q32VYW2BVJUS86JN0PM/T110590_042_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A young boy takes a basket of food out to workers in the fields preparing the ground for the next rice planting. February 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555388665-TZGBGAOOFDPLMTZNPH6H/T98530_TK1_018_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Nguyen thi Sam, Dinh Van Hieu’s wife, hangs laundry on a line. Her property is next to an irrigation canal adjacent to a dirt road. In the Red River Delta, many roads and canals had to be created to maintain access and flood control. February 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593556056725-X9V7DD6NLBLK42QQBTHS/T115186_026_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A clan (or extended family) portrait in a courtyard during Tet Lunar New Year when families traditionally gather. January 1990. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555519704-1KWH6R0Z1KMJ7AJ54FS0/T110590_009_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Funeral cortege and hearse wheeling the body of an elderly woman to the cemetery. February 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555588540-JA1DGN83359BBOYGU7RH/T110590_026_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Ceremony honoring a Vietnamese general, Ly Quoc Su, a patron saint of Khanh Phu who became a Buddhist monk following his military campaigns and helped found Khanh Phu over 200 years ago. February 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555242852-RF0VZ0WAXXGVXD8ADMXH/T98530_TK1_001_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR The face of a distraught woman as she is held by friends following the funeral of her son, Nguyen Van De, a 28 year old lawyer. The son most likely drowned following a seizure on the banks of the town’s canal. September 1988. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555503169-XTNPAB96RA023T5E4IM4/T110590_008_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Villagers pay respects at the gravesite of an elderly woman. The man on the left holding a stick is her eldest son. February 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1594061690238-B7JYZEVF6E68O309KSPX/T110590_023_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Village women carry a palanquin during a ceremony honoring a historic Vietnamese official, General Ly Quoc Su. General Su is the patron saint of Khanh Phu and helped found the village over 200 years ago. February 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555480650-6GG1GR4KHUNX61EKIN70/T110590_001_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Villagers crowd in to see traditional wrestling matches held during the Tet Lunar New Year and to honor one of the village’s founder, General Ly Quoc Su. February 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555486694-B3ZV1G1TY4QY656OSA6T/T110590_003_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Village men, some in their 80’s, compete in a traditional wrestling match during the Tet Lunar New Year celebrations. February 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555728922-7JXA8NPSOJBHP3JQQONT/T110590_051_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR The extended Le family pose for a photograph at their clan temple during Tet Lunar New Year. There are four clans in Khanh Phu: Dinh, Le, Phan and Trinh. Dinh clan was the largest and oldest. The Le clan was the most dominant. February 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555785511-TR554T381K7SJMEWSIRA/T110590_090_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Khanh Phu’s open market. The market is set up on National Highway 10, a single lane road that runs through the village. February, 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555840279-CUCR3076SIVVPOBP2IV5/T112424_006_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Local fish for sale in the Khanh Phu market. June 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555538217-5BZ7K3ED1EY4NKYYD7QD/T110590_013_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A pig being prepared for the first day of Tet Lunar New Year in the courtyard of Dinh Van Hieu’s house. Families traditionally raise a pig for one year to feed everyone at Tet Lunar New Year meals. February 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555803372-NHUFC9N5ZSFNTW15Q9A5/T110590_093_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR Tempers flare during a heated dispute over a commercial transaction in the Khanh Phu open air market. February 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555984360-9A2OZQ1UHFHKWZ6TXTS4/T115186_015_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A woman selling goods in the public market secures her cash using her foot. After the loosening of a state controlled economy in 1986 with Doi Moi, or economic renovation policies, private enterprise progressed allowing profit for individuals. January 1990. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555966169-EG4NAXWRDPS1RGN6896N/T115186_005_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A villager readies his next shot in a game of billiards. January 1990. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593555932208-48S61THZRXYH0HP41SBB/T112424_035_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A woman sells live crabs caught in Khanh Phu’s nearby irrigation canals of the Red River Delta. June 1989. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1593556112368-EBBSJ1TDSUYSOK0ND09A/T115186_035_loresmeta.jpg VIETNAM: AFTER THE WAR A traveling salesman gives a dramatic sales pitch for a homemade remedy to Khanh Phu villagers in the open air market. February 1989. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/-guate-black-white daily 0.75 2022-08-08 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197889978-HBSIH9W7GWV4SKU9KT8D/guatemala_nb_0080_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White The winner of the 1982 presidential elections, General Ángel Aníbal Guevara, center, seated, looks on with political party leaders at a press conference March 25, 1982 following a military coup d’état March 23, 1982 in Guatemala City, Guatemala. General Guevara was the designated successor to the previous military president General Romeo Lucas Garcia in the March 7 elections followed by a military coup d’état by General Efraín Ríos Montt. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661357436060-CO9Y632IG991NA0JMDNM/guatemala_nb_0103_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White General Efraín Ríos Montt arrives for a ceremony at the National Palace in Guatemala City, Guatemala, October 20, 1982. Ríos Montt assumed control through a military coup d’état on March 23, 1982. His 17-month term as de facto head of state, in which he installed a military regime, dissolved the congress, and suspended the constitution, is considered the most violent period of the 36-year civil war. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661357418169-SE5WXQY4PDBS6TX266M6/guatemala_nb_0003_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Evangelical Protestants pray during a service in Guatemala City, Guatemala, January 1, 1983. Evangelical Protestantism reached new heights of popularity in Guatemala under General Efraín Ríos Montt, the conservative anti-communist military general who took power in a coup d’état on March 23, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197890784-0TYYUYNO4QMMGVCFG999/guatemala_nb_0088_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Chief of staff of the Guatemalan Army General Benedicto Lucas García addresses a press conference to denounce claims of fraud during the presidential elections held two days prior, Guatemala City, Guatemala, March 9, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197892904-JB5M3UGUGDNGONHCHBNN/guatemala_nb_0101_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White A military-style band marches near the National Palace during a ceremony with General Efraín Ríos Montt in Guatemala City, Guatemala, October 20, 1982. Ríos Montt assumed control through a military coup d’état on March 23, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661357418491-0NFN286NJ4FT92K3KZVP/guatemala_nb_0099_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Local residents listen to a Guatemalan army officer speak about forming civil defense patrols to secure their villages against leftist guerrilla attacks near Huehuetenango, Guatemala, October 1, 1982. The Patrullas de Autodefensa Civil, PAC, were composed of members of rural communities particularly in the heavily indigenous northwest of the country and were directed with coercion and force by the Guatemalan Armed Forces. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197880369-XQKH1G6S7WG732RJ7FEH/guatemala_nb_0037_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White A dirt road winds through the highlands of San Juan Cotzal, Guatemala, January 20, 1982. The town was in turmoil after a battle the day before between guerrillas from the Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres, EGP, and the Guatemalan Armed Forces. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197891976-H13219TVXF5T2PMSGFSH/guatemala_nb_0095_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Local residents watch as Guatemalan army soldiers show captured banners made by militant guerrilla group Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres, EGP, in Huehuetenango, Guatemala, October 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197887654-YA780LBT0WM0AJD3E0FT/guatemala_nb_0065_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White A civilian is checked for weapons by Guatemalan army soldiers outside of Santa Cruz del Quiché, Guatemala, February 1, 1982. In 1981 the Lucas García military regime and the Guatemalan army initiated a brutal counterinsurgency program of scorched earth tactics to consolidate control over civilians and counteract the influence of the guerrilla insurgency. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197878420-VWXV3FT6N64Y2ZWF5FZI/guatemala_nb_0021_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White An extended Maya family stands for a photograph in the rural highlands of Quiché, Guatemala, May 1, 1984. In the 36-year domestic armed conflict lasting from 1960 to 1996, an estimated 200,000 people were killed, up to 45,000 civilians were forcibly disappeared, and between 500,000 and 1.5 million people were internally displaced or fled the country. 83 percent of the victims were indigenous Maya people. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197896929-LW6J70B5WXY8OQML77DS/guatemala_nb_0117_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Members of the Knights of Columbus in formal dress attend the funeral ceremony for Mario Casariego y Acevedo, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Guatemala, who died of a heart attack two days prior in Guatemala City, Guatemala, June 17, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197896904-4OH9GOLPW0K7MY7XIOF6/guatemala_nb_0116_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Dignitaries attend the funeral ceremony for Mario Casariego y Acevedo, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Guatemala, who died of a heart attack two days prior in Guatemala City, Guatemala, June 17, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197888674-NT8KD7CX2KC6HCEJM18Y/guatemala_nb_0071_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White A classroom of young indigenous Maya girls listen to an instructor at an elementary school in Comalapa, Guatemala, February 1, 1982. The military regime following the 1954 coup had implemented literacy programs for the Maya population to assimilate them into the Spanish-speaking Ladino society. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1659976817409-8ENMD0BWIJMLM2R7LS4B/guatemala_nb_0110_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White A man of Maya descent sits for a picture in Todos Santos, Guatemala, May 15, 1984. In the 36-year domestic armed conflict, an estimated 200,000 people were killed, up to 45,000 civilians were forcibly disappeared, and between 500,000 and 1.5 million people were internally displaced or fled the country. 83 percent of the victims were indigenous Maya people. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197886112-3XGLDJ6JP3OI7KPICYZW/guatemala_nb_0059_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Two armed security guards sit in the back of a vehicle during the political campaign of Alejandro Maldonado Aguire, the presidential candidate from the Democracia Cristiana Guatemalteca, DCG, in rural Quiché department, February 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197895542-CXR7DHBN2KTJN23W75R0/guatemala_nb_0109_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Local civil defense forces stand for a photograph in the village square in rural Todos Santos, Guatemala, October 1, 1982. The Patrullas de Autodefensa Civil, PAC, were composed of members of rural communities particularly in the heavily indigenous northwest of the country and were directed with coercion and force by the Guatemalan Armed Forces. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197886016-XBXF97RSVK3D2Q2WLSR2/guatemala_nb_0052_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White A man gets a shoe shine while others congregate outside the local bus terminal in Guatemala City, Guatemala, January 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197883354-YB280VDS6T1M5ESLGZ6B/guatemala_nb_0041_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Two young Maya Ixil women retrieve water following an attack by armed guerrillas from the Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres, EGP, on the Guatemalan Army's regional garrison in San Juan Cotzal, Guatemala, January 20, 1982. Over 100 EGP guerrillas attacked the military's highland base leaving 12 soldiers dead in the official count. According to local civilians and unofficial reports, 34 army soldiers were killed. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197884678-P9K0ZEURLILZIIGDPLK7/guatemala_nb_0049_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Army soldiers check the identity cards of bus passengers along the Pan American Highway to Chichicastenango, Guatemala, March 1, 1982. In 1981 the Lucas García military regime and the Guatemalan army initiated a brutal counterinsurgency program of scorched earth tactics to consolidate control over civilians and counteract the influence of the guerrilla insurgency. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197879315-BXM6IX0UPJ7047C0CSYW/guatemala_nb_0036_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Guatemalan army soldiers direct a suspected leftist guerrilla into a building for interrogation in the military compound in Santa Cruz del Quiché, Guatemala, January 1, 1982. Santa Cruz del Quiché was used as a base of operations for the Guatemalan military during the civil war to combat the leftist armed guerrilla group Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres, EGP, also active in the region. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197884647-BJEVF4L1WQBKSXEE8I8M/guatemala_nb_0044_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Guatemalan Armed Forces soldiers form patrols to search for armed guerrillas from the Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres, EGP, following a battle the day before in San Juan Cotzal, Guatemala, January 20, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197881604-C51XC9TX5IHAX07LL9QS/guatemala_nb_0039_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Guatemalan Army chief of staff General Benedicto Lucas García stands in front of the regional military garrison in Santa Cruz del Quiché, Guatemala, January 1, 1982. President Romeo Lucas García appointed his brother Benedicto Lucas García as chief of the General Staff of the Guatemalan Army in August 1981 in response to the growing threat of insurgency to the military regime. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197877626-Q9T2N4Z4OZ6SGRVMEDQF/guatemala_nb_0016_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Clara Luz Brito Raymundo, 8 years, stands for a picture wearing a traditional Maya Ixil head dress in Nebaj, Guatemala, May 1, 1984. Nebaj forms part of the Ixil community along with neighboring towns San Juan Cotzal and San Gaspar Chajul in the Quiché department. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197891037-GRFX2MJGEKOL8QMRGVXW/guatemala_nb_0094_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Local residents listen to a Guatemalan army officer speak about forming civil defense patrols to secure their villages against leftist guerrilla attacks near Huehuetenango, Guatemala, October 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197897676-1ESTLBXXUIXEKM3EDFLL/guatemala_nb_0121_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Two men load sugarcane stalks into a press to extract juice in rural Escuintla department, Guatemala, January 1, 1983. Guatemala is one of the world’s largest manufacturers and exporters of sugar. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197889769-61M10HT0PPN1Y19RPS8S/guatemala_nb_0079_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Guatemalan Army soldiers and local civilians clear a section of the Pan American Highway blocked by felled trees during the ongoing civil war, Los Encuentros, Guatemala, March 7, 1982. The trees were downed in protest by the guerrilla group Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres, EGP, to block the road the day of the presidential elections. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197881584-RRU47NXRQB3YJWZ3JWPB/guatemala_nb_0038_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Guatemalan Armed Forces soldiers form patrols to search for armed guerrillas from the Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres, EGP, following a battle the day before in San Juan Cotzal, Guatemala, January 20, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197883393-YYVZVF0ILRWFC5LRB6WB/guatemala_nb_0042_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Guatemalan Army soldiers prepare to fire on indigenous Maya civilians from a U.S.-made Bell helicopter flown by Guatemalan Army chief of staff Benedicto Lucas García near Los Encuentros, Guatemala, January 21, 1982. Lucas García claimed if the locals run from the helicopter, they must be guilty of being guerrillas. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197888822-ZNPJPATIJ7DCIFQVIOWT/guatemala_nb_0073_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Indigenous Maya civilians stand in line to vote in Guatemala's national elections in Sololá, Guatemala, March 7, 1982. Various opposition parties were running in the elections against the civilian candidate Ángel Aníbal Guevara, the chosen successor to outgoing president Fernando Romeo Lucas García. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197894572-6JHCWZ7W5JLUYGEV9RUU/guatemala_nb_0106_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Local residents and members of civil defense patrols help reconstruct a bridge destroyed by guerrillas from the Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres, EGP, with Guatemalan army engineers in Huehuetenango, Guatemala, October 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197887561-5ZGOTC0MVT0XZ1ICVZ4U/guatemala_nb_0061_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Police and fire department workers attend to a dead paramilitary bank guard who was shot and killed in downtown Guatemala City, Guatemala on January 1, 1982. The guard was shot by an unknown assailant and it was presumed to be an assassination. The revolutionary movement reached its height between 1980 and 1981 just as the indiscriminate violence of the military’s counterinsurgency operations was set to escalate. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661197894337-RQXD9868VGICIGSGA3RG/guatemala_nb_0105_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Black & White Civilians watch as General Efraín Ríos Montt arrives for a ceremony at the National Palace in Guatemala City, Guatemala, October 20, 1982. His 17-month term as de facto head of state, in which he installed a military regime, dissolved the congress, and suspended the constitution, is considered the most violent period of the conflict. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/-guate-color daily 0.75 2022-08-08 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661184348823-CKLTK1BG2LDB68J5IN0Q/guatemala_ct_0004_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color Guerrillas from the Partido Guatemalteco del Trabajo, PGT, stand with their weapons at a training camp near the Mexican border in the western region of Guatemala, July 1, 1981. The PGT had been a clandestine organization since the 1954 coup d'état that led to a military regime and civil war. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661184348823-XOGKZUBDPVMCVVLAPC7R/guatemala_ct_0001_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color A pack of pigs forage through a pile of garbage in a slum in Guatemala City, Guatemala, June 1, 1981. In 1954, U.S. economic interests and the United Fruit Company’s influence in Guatemala were threatened by nationalist reforms proposed by President Jacobo Árbenz. Invoking Cold War fears of the spread of communism in the Western Hemisphere, the CIA orchestrated a coup d’état to install a succession of military regimes. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661184356673-7OE9CNIMNVX5Q0Y19QXY/guatemala_ct_0092_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color A local civil defense force holds a meeting in the village square in Todos Santos, Guatemala, September 1, 1982. The Patrullas de Autodefensa Civil, PAC, were composed of members of rural communities particularly in the heavily indigenous northwest of the country and were directed with coercion and force by the Guatemalan Armed Forces. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661184358389-FIFCOTQ935XNECZCTKMY/guatemala_ct_0107_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color Guatemalan army soldiers patrol near the National Palace in downtown Guatemala City, Guatemala, August 1, 1983. In the 36-year domestic armed conflict lasting from 1960 to 1996, an estimated 200,000 people were killed, up to 45,000 civilians were forcibly disappeared, and between 500,000 and 1.5 million people were internally displaced or fled the country. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661184357970-5Y672NMBR0WNHE4AA2XT/guatemala_ct_0104_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color Guatemalan Defense Minister Brigadier General Óscar Mejía Víctores (1930-2016), center, walks along the casket of Archbishop of Guatemala Cardinal Mario Casariego y Acevedo, who died of a heart attack in Guatemala City, Guatemala, June 15, 1983. Mejía Víctores deposed General Efraín Ríos Montt in a coup d’état on August 8, 1983. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661184349723-7I4D77LYT10SOO30ST33/guatemala_ct_0011_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color Civilians waiting for transportation congregate along a street in downtown Guatemala City, Guatemala, January 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661184357694-QR2FVO6THAWRO2570GS2/guatemala_ct_0094_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color A local photographer prepares to take a picture in a rural town in Huehuetenango department, Guatemala, September 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661184357189-325748GXQK2PXHRXLOGU/guatemala_ct_0093_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color Local civil defense forces check a truck driver's identity papers along a mountain road in rural Huehuetenango, Guatemala, September 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661184351628-UKQR4RZWH1Y7QVD9P2FC/guatemala_ct_0026_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color General Benedicto Lucas García, center, receives a map reading from his base commander Colonel Byron Lima Estrada, right, at the regional military base in Santa Cruz del Quiché, Guatemala, January 20, 1982. In 1981, the military regime and the Guatemalan army initiated a brutal counterinsurgency program of scorched earth tactics to consolidate control over civilians and counteract the influence of the guerrilla insurgency. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661184349683-S1B6GQYCXD73XLUPZ708/guatemala_ct_0006_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color Leaders of the Partido Guatemalteco del Trabajo, PGT, pose with their weapons during a press conference with international media on the outskirts of Guatemala City, Guatemala, July 1, 1981. The brutality and escalation in violence by state military forces led the PGT to join guerrilla organizations the Fuerzas Armadas Rebeldes, FAR, Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres, EGP, and the Organización Revolucionario del Pueblo en Armas, ORPA, to establish the guerrilla coalition Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional Guatemalteca, URNG, in February of 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661184350597-4EXUWVRETB6N9EOKREU5/guatemala_ct_0018_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color Guatemalan Armed Forces soldiers transfer a dead soldier from a helicopter to a stretcher at an army base in the central highlands after a battle the day before with guerrillas from the Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres, EGP, in Santa Cruz del Quiché, Guatemala, January 20, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661184353540-R2HCS4M4Y0BQ6N8SD6EU/guatemala_ct_0045_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color Guatemalan Army soldiers and local civilians clear a section of the Pan American Highway blocked by felled trees during the ongoing civil war, Los Encuentros, Guatemala, March 7, 1982. The trees were downed in protest by the guerrilla group Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres, EGP, to block the road the day of the presidential elections. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661184351656-JX2RZ7FG7C7PN0FPMEUI/guatemala_ct_0029_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color A view of a cache of weapons and propaganda materials recently seized by the military from a Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres, EGP, safe house at the regional military garrison in Santa Cruz del Quiché, Guatemala, February 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661184352543-FXLZ5DT5PIGCGK5SVOZU/guatemala_ct_0031_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color A group of ethnic Maya and evangelical Protestants pray during an outdoor religious service near Santa Cruz del Quiché, Guatemala, February 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661184354329-SCYNLATDQB5UGNF2HE5R/guatemala_ct_0063_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color An indigenous Maya man dressed as a Spanish conquistador with a horse’s head participates in a religious procession in Chichicastenango, Guatemala, May 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661184350631-9GYXOA8GWQRQZW3U5MDL/guatemala_ct_0021_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color A wounded Guatemalan army soldier waits for transport after being brought for medical aid to the military hospital in Santa Cruz del Quiché, Guatemala, January 20, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661356921202-F02F7NDJ2F1ZUGG7NJOZ/guatemala_ct_0054_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color General Efraín Ríos Montt, center, stands with army soldiers during a press conference following his successful coup d'état at the National Palace in Guatemala City, Guatemala, March 23, 1982. His 17-month term as de facto head of state, in which he installed a military regime, dissolved the congress, and suspended the constitution, is considered the most violent period of the 36-year internal armed conflict. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661356921410-QHU7LVAMUUAAHU6GCXHO/guatemala_ct_0071_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color Local residents and members of civil defense patrols help reconstruct a bridge destroyed by guerrillas from the Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres, EGP, with Guatemalan army engineers in Huehuetenango, Guatemala, September 1, 1982. In the central highlands, the Patrullas de Autodefensa Civil, PAC, were required to participate on public works projects as part of the Guatemalan Army's counterinsurgency plan to pacify the countryside. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661184353274-C6FLMSJ057G7D9BD95XA/guatemala_ct_0034_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color Alejandro Maldonado Aguirre, the presidential candidate from the Democracia Cristiana Guatemalteca, DCG, and representing a coalition of political parties, center right, and politician Vinicio Cerezo, far right, at a campaign rally before the 1982 elections in rural Quiché department, Guatemala, February 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661184356402-3DU92GW9XGQI0XJQ29GJ/guatemala_ct_0089_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color Local civil defense forces patrol along a mountain road in rural Huehuetenango, Guatemala, September 1, 1982. Organization of the Patrullas de Autodefensa Civil, civil defense patrols, PAC, began in 1981 under Lucas García's military regime and was institutionalized after the coup d'état that brought Ríos Montt to power. The PACs were composed of members of rural communities particularly in the heavily indigenous northwest of the country and were directed with coercion and force by the Guatemalan Armed Forces. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661184352564-1B0KNLP464LTKK71SQBN/guatemala_ct_0032_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color Guatemalan army soldiers armed with Israeli Galil assault rifles travel in a U.S.-manufactured troop transport through possible guerrilla ambush territory outside of Santa Cruz del Quiché, Guatemala, February 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661184358683-8Y3CX3RUFISU3UCH9J0T/guatemala_ct_0114_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color Ixil Maya men leave the central plaza following a Roman Catholic church service in Nebaj, Guatemala, May 1, 1984. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661356938612-JNLFKYAX1XPKWSMXG575/guatemala_ct_0083_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color Local residents listen to a Guatemalan army officer speak about forming civil defense patrols to secure their villages against leftist guerrilla attacks near Huehuetenango, Guatemala, September 1, 1982. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1661184355216-UZ0TF67CV3IB0Z3EVJCN/guatemala_ct_0077_master_web.jpg + Guatemala Color Local civil defense forces patrol along a mountain road in rural Huehuetenango, Guatemala, September 1, 1982. Local civilians were against the government patrols as the armed guerrilla groups would treat them as enemies and the Guatemalan army would consider them guerrillas if they did not participate. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/brazil-gold-rush-2023 daily 0.75 2023-04-26 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538493539-XTA4YLVKTBF1JYWX2FYT/brazil_ct_0048_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH Over the years, logging and other forms of deforestation have affected the eastern edge of the Amazon in the Pará state. Badly planned mining explorations in the 1980s, including at Serra Pelada, led to serious environmental consequences such as heavy water contamination from mercury. Conflict between prospectors and Indigenous populations who live around the mines remains a persistent issue in the Amazon region. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538443008-UISNBPNO5NXUHIMUQSMH/brazil_ct_0017_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH An overview shows between 80,000 to 100,000 garimpeiros digging out bags of ore to be carried by hand to the surface of the mine. The Brazilian military government in power at the time agreed to buy all gold found by the garimpeiros for 75% of the London Metal Exchange price. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538449929-X1PK8J1VJC3YN19IHUG5/Brazil_ct_0022_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH Garimpeiros were paid the equivalent of $2-$3 per day for digging and carrying ore to the surface, with a bonus if gold was discovered. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538435979-R5K8O5875BNF6WK79TD7/brazil_ct_0015_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH A given day in the mine was characterized by conflicts between the garimpeiros, as well as larger tensions between prospectors and the Brazilian military government. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538479187-6YEJ6KX3RKFTP09CDG8I/brazil_ct_0041_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH Garimpeiros climbed nearly 400 meters of wooden ladders with 50-75 pounds of weight on their backs to reach the surface. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538450430-K8RW7U5VOXZMKO0VXV51/brazil_ct_0023_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH When garimpeiros extracted more than 1 kilo of gold at a given time, they called it bamburra, which loosely translates to “achieving a great fortune”. The biggest nugget discovered at Serra Pelada weighed 6.8 kilos and was worth $108,000 in 1980, now $335,100 in 2020. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538443726-XF2W5W71GQDVVYEDUVRL/brazil_ct_0018_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH The mountain was removed by hand and divided into lots of 2 square meters with around 10 garimpeiros working in a given lot. In the 1980s, the price of gold underwent a steady rise on the world market and people migrated from around Brazil to try their luck in striking gold at the Serra Pelada mine. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538472127-W59YZ2327LFUIASOJ0VA/brazil_ct_0038_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH Social unrest increased in the region with the presence of an armed guerrilla movement against the military dictatorship in the late 1960s and early 70s, known as the Araguaia Guerrilla War. The gold served as a governmental form of control to counter civil dissent in the region and was seen by the state as a solution to Brazil’s mounting international debts. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538479292-OJ7JQM92HO55F7750931/brazil_ct_0042_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH Workers stand for a photograph in a vertical shaft of their owner's mining claim. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538422411-BCODOE76L78FSVOCTNC7/brazil_ct_0011_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH Garimpeiros carry a water pump in the mine. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538471999-4PUJVM6PAWT0WUE6OFRE/brazil_ct_0037_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH Government engineers measure an owner’s plot. The mine became an intermittent flashpoint of confrontation between workers and the Brazilian authorities, who were directly involved not just in Serra Pelada but in other garimpos located in the Pará state. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538414771-VY5O7UXEJKRD4FSNY6HN/brazil_ct_0005_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH A map shows the small plots of the open-air gold mine in Serra Pelada. Plots measured on average 2 square meters. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538428834-7IEC2WNRIL54G0VUJ0OG/brazil_ct_0012_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH A crew chief keeps track of garimpeiros hauling ore to the surface at a gold mine. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538415030-GJOPMQ5OFF6D3ROZLRG7/brazil_ct_0004_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH A blind man plays a guitar in the mine. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538464972-T8QA45F2W25WINW5YK4K/brazil_ct_0033_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH Miners were paid in cruzeiros, the former currency of Brazil, for their labor. The lot owners, known as donos, paid the garimpeiros either a fixed daily wage or offered them a stake in the profits if gold was found. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538464531-93IS1O3DII0WFZ1UNKRV/brazil_ct_0032_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH Up to 80,000 garimpeiros worked in the mine during the peak production period in the mid-1980's. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538421713-2I79T75BDSGW3AVWYR4C/brazil_ct_0008_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH Garimpeiros listen to announcements before starting work. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538457702-7BLWOYQR82OGAB2I78F8/brazil_ct_0030_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH Garimpeiros were paid $2-3 U.S.D. per day. Each miner had a claim of 6.6 feet (2 meters) by 9.8 feet (3 meters). Multiple plots were bought and sold. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538429323-OHZ7OXZDNNOFPY3NEH90/brazil_ct_0014_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH Workers carry out 40-pound bags of ore from their owners mining claims. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538486195-0GHX327STEXXSEILNB4J/brazil_ct_0046_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH A garimpeiro takes a bath above the open-air mine. Miners were so saturated in sediment they often soaked their clothes at the end of the day to extract flakes of gold from their garments. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538493129-JPOMAZB2P1FX52JDCVUT/brazil_ct_0047_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH Mine workers use draining water to break up ore. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538485917-U6ZSM0A7AIFXT0ZQ927W/brazil_ct_0045_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH Garimpeiros were exposed to dangerously high levels of mercury used in the extraction process and many miners were killed in landslides. The surrounding settlements that emerged from the mine at Serra Pelada were also known to be extremely violent. At the height of the boom, 60-80 murders were recorded on average monthly. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538457065-5S3L7KLKTWNJIF2A1AN4/brazil_ct_0026_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH Garimpeiros historically relied on environmentally destructive extractive practices, including the use of mercury, which polluted the water and poisoned miners. Many garimpeiros were also killed in landslides. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/1682538436612-8BPUPGRB7TDAFCYW93E3/brazil_ct_0016_web.jpg BRAZIL: GOLD RUSH Catastrophic landslides and structural collapses forced Serra Pelada to officially close in 1986. To prevent further exploration the mine was flooded, creating a 140 meter-deep lake. Today the lake is completely polluted with mercury. https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/legacyoflies daily 1.0 2024-08-04 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5b0c4aed25bf021332006217/bedafc4b-ba14-4537-af46-3a273859adbb/Nickelsberg_Book_Cover.jpg Legacy of Lies: El Salvador 1981-1984 - NEW RELEASE Legacy of Lies. El Salvador 1981-1984 Photos by Robert Nickelsberg Essays by Jon Lee Anderson, Carlos Dada, Alma Guillermoprieto, Robert Nickelsberg, Scott Wallace Published by Kehrer Verlag https://www.robertnickelsberg.com/learnmore daily 0.75 2024-08-04